Retrieval Of Negative Memories Research Articles

Reducing the stickiness of negative memory retrieval through positive memory training in adolescents

Background and objectivesIndividuals at risk for depression exhibit a decreased ability to disengage from negative memory retrieval during times of mental distress, partly because they have difficulty retrieving positive memories to repair sad mood. In this study, we tested whether this persistent tendency for negative memory retrieval could be reduced in adolescents through repeated practice to retrieve positive autobiographical memories, namely Positive Memory Specificity Training (PMST). Further, we examined the impact of this intervention on secondary outcomes, including depressive symptoms, emotion regulation strategies, and fear of positive emotions. MethodsAdolescents (n = 68) between 16 and 18 years old were randomly allocated to either PMST or bogus control training. Persistent negative memory retrieval was assessed following the training using a behavioral decision-making task (Emotional Reversal Learning Task). Additionally, participants completed self-report measurements (e.g., depressive symptoms) before and two weeks after the training. ResultsWe found preliminary supportive evidence for a significant training effect such that adolescents following PMST showed less persistence in negative memory retrieval compared to those in the control group. Only for anhedonia a significant training effect was found, indicating a possible adverse effect of the intervention. LimitationsThe primary outcome was assessed only at post-intervention to prevent a potential learning effect due to repeated measurements. We cannot exclude the possibility that baseline individual differences contaminated our results. To examine possible adverse effects of PMST, larger sample are needed. ConclusionsPMST may help to reduce persistent negative memory retrieval in adolescents. Recommendations for future studies are addressed.

Autobiographical memories of interpersonal trust in borderline personality disorder

BackgroundEstablishing and maintaining interpersonal trust is often difficult for patients with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). How we trust is influenced by prior trust experiences.MethodsFor the investigation of trust experiences, autobiographical memories of n = 36 patients with BPD and n = 99 non-clinical controls were examined. Trust objects and interaction partners, emotional valence, perceived relevance and memory specificity were analyzed.ResultsContent analyses revealed that patients with BPD recalled mostly situations in which their trust was failed by family members or romantic partners. In addition, patients with BPD considered memories with trust and mistrust more relevant for their current lives than the control group. Our results correspond with findings that BPD patients have difficulties trusting close others as well as with theoretical assumptions about deficits in mentalizing and epistemic trust in patients with BPD.ConclusionIn conclusion, our findings should encourage clinical practitioners to address trust deficits towards close others, as well as omniscient negative memory retrieval and interpretation biases which might influence current trust behavior.

Difficulty in updating positive beliefs about negative cognition is associated with increased depressed mood

Background and objectivesDepressed people hold positive beliefs about negative cognition (e.g., rumination is useful to find a solution), which may motivate those individuals to engage in sustained negative thinking. However, in reality, rumination often leads to unfavorable outcomes. Thus, such beliefs create a large discrepancy between one's expectations and the actual outcome. Therefore, we hypothesized that this prediction error would be associated with increased depressed mood. MethodsWe observed how people update their positive beliefs about negative cognition within a volatile environment, in which negative cognition does not always result in a beneficial outcome. Forty-six participants were offered two response options (retrieving a negative or positive personal memory) and subsequently provided either an economic reward or punishment. Retrieving a negative (rather than positive) memory was initially reinforced, although this action-outcome contingency was reversed during the task. In the control condition, positive memory retrieval was initially reinforced, although a contingency reversal was employed to encourage negative memory retrieval. ResultsModel-based computational modeling revealed that participants who showed a delay in switching from negative to positive (but not from positive to negative) responses experienced increased levels of depressed mood. This delay in switching was also found to be associated with depressive symptoms and trait rumination. LimitationsThe non-clinical nature of the sample may limit the clinical implications of the results. ConclusionsDifficulty in updating positive beliefs (or outcome predictions) for negative cognition may play an important role in depressive symptomatology.

Negative mood-induction modulates default mode network resting-state functional connectivity in chronic depression

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to investigate the effects of sad mood on default mode network (DMN) resting-state connectivity in persons with chronic major depressive disorder (cMDD). MethodsParticipants with a diagnosis of cMDD (n=18) and age, gender and education level matched participants without a diagnosis of depression (n=18) underwent a resting-state fMRI scan, before and after a sad mood induction. The posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) was used as a seed for DMN functional connectivity across the two resting-state measurements. ResultsMood ratings decreased in both groups following the sad mood induction procedure. PCC connectivity with the parahippocampal gyrus, the superior temporal gyrus and the anterior inferior temporal cortex increased in cMDD patients following the sad mood induction, whereas it decreased in non-patient controls. PCC connectivity with the anterior prefrontal cortex and the precuneus decreased in cMDD patients following the sad mood induction, whereas it increased in non-patient controls. LimitationsLimitations of this study include the relatively small sample size and lack of a clinical control group. ConclusionsThese findings are in line with neurobiological models of depression suggesting that the observed changes in DMN connectivity following the sad mood induction might reflect a failure to exert cognitive control over negative memory retrieval in patients with cMDD.

Transient decline in rats’ hippocampal theta power relates to inhibitory stimulus-reward association

The hippocampus is important in learning during a discrimination-reversal task. In this task, animals first learn to emit the go response to one stimulus and the no-go response to another stimulus (S1+, S2−) during the discrimination phase, and then they learn to reverse these relationships between stimulus and response during the reversal phase (S1−, S2+). To emit a no-go response for non-reinforced trial during the reversal phase, animals needed to inhibit the previously learned response pattern. This study examined the relationship between the reversal phase of the discrimination-reversal task and hippocampal electric activity in operant conditioning. The results revealed that hippocampal theta power transiently declined during the non-reinforced trial in the reversal phase compared with that during the discrimination phase. This decrease was observed during the 400–600-ms epoch after the onset of stimulus presentation. This study suggested that transient decline in hippocampal theta power is related to negative memory retrieval.

The role of childhood and adulthood trauma and appraisal of self-discrepancy in overgeneral memory retrieval

The aim of this study was to examine the contributory role of childhood and adulthood trauma events and the appraisal of self-discrepancy (the magnitude and distress) in overgeneral memory retrieval (OGM) using a non-clinical sample. Participants with a history of childhood trauma (n=29); adulthood trauma only (n=17) or no-trauma (n=26) participated in this study. The childhood trauma group showed a significantly higher level of general negative memory retrieval than the no-trauma group. Conversely, the adulthood trauma group showed a significantly higher level of general threat memory retrieval than the no-trauma group. The perceived similarity and distress relating to the perceived similarity between participants' “actual self” and “feared self” significantly predicted the level of OGM, even after controlling for the impact of a history of adult or child trauma.

Reduced specificity of negative autobiographical memories in repressive coping

The current study examined memory specificity of autobiographical memories in individuals with and without a repressive coping style. It seems conceivable that reduced memory specificity may be a way to reduce accessibility of negative experiences, one of the hallmark features of a repressive coping style. It was therefore hypothesized that repressors would show reduced specificity when retrieving negative memories. In order to study memory specificity, participants (N = 103) performed the autobiographical memory test. Results showed that individuals with a repressive coping style were significantly less specific in retrieving negative experiences, relative to control groups of low anxious, high anxious, and defensive high anxious individuals. This result was restricted to negative memory retrieval, as participants did not differ in memory specificity for positive experiences. These results show that repressors retrieve negative autobiographical memories in an overgeneral way, possibly in order to avoid negative affect.

The impact of rumination on memory for self-referent material

Previous findings have linked rumination to the enhanced retrieval of negative memories (Lyubormirsky, Caldwell, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1998) and overgeneral autobiographical memories (Watkins & Teasdale, 2004) in depression. However, little is known of the impact of rumination on the encoding of information, and in particular, self-referent information. This study examined the impact of rumination on self-referent encoding in high (BDI-II≥13) and low (BDI-II≤5) dysphoric participants. Participants were randomly allocated to a rumination or distraction condition, and then completed the experimental task in which they rated a series of adjectives (positive, negative) as either self- or other-descriptive, and later received a memory test for the adjectives. Not surprisingly, high-dysphoric participants endorsed more negative and less positive adjectives as self-descriptive. Counter to our prediction, high-dysphoric participants allocated to the rumination condition did not endorse more negative adjectives as self-referent. However, consistent with our hypothesis, high-dysphoric participants who ruminated recalled more negative self-referent words, after controlling for the proportion of words endorsed as self-descriptive. The findings demonstrate that rumination results in enhanced memory for negative, self-related material, and raises the possibility that this may serve as another pathway via which the negative evaluations of the self observed clinically in depression are maintained.

Gender differences in the functional neuroanatomy of emotional episodic autobiographical memory

Autobiographical memory is based on interactions between episodic memory contents, associated emotions, and a sense of self-continuity along the time axis of one's life. The functional neuroanatomy subserving autobiographical memory is known to include prefrontal, medial and lateral temporal, as well as retrosplenial brain areas; however, whether gender differences exist in neural correlates of autobiographical memory remains to be clarified. We reanalyzed data from a previous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment to investigate gender-related differences in the neural bases of autobiographical memories with differential remoteness and emotional valence. On the behavioral level, there were no significant gender differences in memory performance or emotional intensity of memories. Activations common to males and females during autobiographical memory retrieval were observed in a bilateral network of brain areas comprising medial and lateral temporal regions, including hippocampal and parahippocampal structures, posterior cingulate, as well as prefrontal cortex. In males (relative to females), all types of autobiographical memories investigated were associated with differential activation of the left parahippocampal gyrus. By contrast, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was activated differentially by females. In addition, the right insula was activated differentially in females during remote and negative memory retrieval. The data show gender-related differential neural activations within the network subserving autobiographical memory in both genders. We suggest that the differential activations may reflect gender-specific cognitive strategies during access to autobiographical memories that do not necessarily affect the behavioral level of memory performance and emotionality.

A Prospective Study of Autobiographical Memory and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Following Cancer.

In this study, the authors investigated the relationship between autobiographical memory and the onset and maintenance of distressing memories following cancer. In Study 1, participants recently diagnosed with head, neck, or lung cancer were assessed for acute stress disorder (ASD). Participants with ASD reported fewer specific memories than did participants without ASD. In Study 2, the same participants were assessed 6 months later for autobiographical memory and cancer-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Deficits in the retrieval of specific memories in Study 1 were not predictive of subsequent PTSD. Increased hopelessness during the 6 months was associated with a decline in the retrieval of positive memories and an increase in the retrieval of negative memories. These findings accord with propositions that retrieval of distressing memories is guided by current self-image and attitude toward one's future.

Autobiographical Memories Associated with Feared Stimuli in Fearful and Nonfearful Individuals

The present study examined characteristics of autobiographical memories retrieved by spider fearful ( n = 21), blood/injury fearful ( n = 27), and nonfearful individuals ( n = 25). Participants were presented with spider-related, blood/injury-related, and neutral cue words and instructed to retrieve the first specific personal memory that came to mind. Fearful individuals in both groups retrieved a higher percentage of negative memories than nonfearful individuals despite the fact that they did not report significantly higher levels of generally anxious or depressive symptoms. All participants retrieved memories reflecting direct encounters with stimuli more quickly and with greater specificity than memories reflecting indirect encounters with stimuli. It is concluded that fearful individuals are characterized by a bias toward the retrieval of generally negative memories, but there is no evidence for a cognitive bias toward the retrieval of negative memories particularly associated with their self-reported domain of fear.

Retrieving positive memories to regulate negative mood: Consequences for mood-congruent memory.

Several researchers have suggested that mood-incongruency effects are due to a mood-regulatory process in which people retrieve positive memories to repair negative moods. The present studies tested this idea by manipulating mood-repair strategies and examining their impact on positive and negative memory retrieval. Mood-congruent retrieval occurred when participants stayed focused on events associated with their negative mood; mood-incongruent retrieval occurred when participants engaged in positive reappraisal (when they reinterpreted events as having positive outcomes). The effects of these strategies on memory retrieval also interacted with personality traits related to negative mood regulation. Individuals high in such traits showed stronger mood-incongruent memory than did individuals low in negative mood-regulation traits. Discussion focuses on integrating mood-regulatory variables and personality variables into existing mood-congruency theories (e.g., associative network models).

Interactive effects of personality and mood on emotion-congruent memory and judgment.

Prior research on emotion congruency has tended to focus on either the effects of mood states or of personality traits on cognition. The aim of the present research was to explore when and how personality traits and mood states interact to influence emotion-congruent memory and judgment. In Study 1, participants filled out measures of personality and natural mood and then completed a series of memory and judgment tasks. The same procedure was used in Study 2, except a positive or negative mood state was induced prior to completion of the cognitive tasks. Extraversion and positive affectivity were related to retrieval of positive memories and the tendency to make positive judgments. Neuroticism and negative affectivity were related to retrieval of negative memories and the tendency to make negative judgments. In addition, several significant personality by mood interaction effects on memory and judgment were obtained in Study 2, which suggests that personality and mood effects on cognition are not independent of one another. Discussion focuses on integrating mood-congruency theories with personality theories and specifying the conditions under which mood by trait interaction effects effects emerge.

Autobiographical memory in suicide attempters.

Mood-memory phenomena have been studied using laboratory mood induction procedures with nondepressed subjects and with clinically depressed individuals. The present study examined both hedonic and nonhedonic aspects of autobiographical memory in people who had recently attempted suicide by overdose. Attempted suicide subjects, who were required to retrieve specific personal memories to positive or negative cue words, showed biased retrieval when their performance was compared with that of control groups, but the bias was wholly due to delayed retrieval of positive memories rather than speeded retrieval of negative memories. At least part of this effect was due to inappropriate retrieval strategies that yielded general rather than specific memories in the overdose group and have implications for associative network models of emotional memory. © 1986 American Psychological Association.

Affect and accessibility

Depressed patients experience thoughts with predominantly negative content. This could be because depressed mood increases the accessibility, or availability, of negative memories relative to that of positive memories. Investigations of the effects of experimentally induced and naturally occurring variations in mood on the recall of memories of personal experiences found results consistent with this suggestion; in depressed mood the latency of retrieval of positive memories was increased, the probability of retrieval of positive memories was decreased, and the probability of retrieval of negative memories was increased. The recall of certain positive and negative words was also found to be differentially affected by mood at recall. It is hypothesized that the effects of current mood on accessibility depend on the extent to which the events to which memories relate have previously been associated with different moods. Differences in the effects of mood on accessibility consistent with this suggestion have been obtained.