Negative Age-related Changes Research Articles

Inducing role of thymus in the body’s ageing process

The ageing process should be considered with respect to all homeostatic systems of the body, their importance for the existence of the organism itself and different timing of their switching-on in the process of age-related changes. An attention should be paid to the literature data on age-related changes in the functional activity of immune system, which starts from almost zero at birth, reaches a maximum at the age of about 40-50 years and significantly decreases during the natural ageing process. The vast majority of most socially significant diseases of modern humans are reasonably associated with this last stage of age-related changes in the functional activity of the immune system. So far, there is probably no consensus on whether ageing is a disease, or not a disease, but just a kind of natural wear of the “biological machine”. In any case, one should emphasize that thymic gland is one of the first organs where negative age-related changes are revealed, one of the two central organs of the immune system. Bone marrow is the second central immune organ. Age-related changes in the thymus are not “all or nothing”, “now or never”, they are normally characterized by a gradual decrease of the cell production and changes in their qualitative characteristics, which undoubtedly result into some negative effects upon the indices of immune system activity. There is a need to develop new approaches towards the assessment of functional parameters of the thymus, highlighting the search for therapeutic approaches that would maintain functional activity of the immune system at a high level.

PHYSICAL FUNCTION, SELF-PERCEPTIONS OF AGING, AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS AMONG OLDER ADULTS

Abstract Poor physical function has been linked to greater depressive symptoms among older adults. On the other hand, older adults’ perceptions of positive and negative age-related changes provide personal strength and vulnerability to stressful events, respectively. We therefore expected that positive self-perceptions of aging (SPA) would be associated with fewer depressive symptoms, while negative SPA would be related to greater depressive symptoms, beyond the effect of physical function. We further tested the hypotheses that positive SPA would buffer the association between physical function and greater depressive symptoms, whereas negative SPA would exacerbate this association. This study used data from 108 older adults (mean age = 81.09) in independent-living or retirement communities. Results from a linear regression revealed that more positive SPA (B = -0.21, p = .02) and less negative SPA (B = 0.21, p = .06) were associated with fewer depressive symptoms, even after controlling for physical function, both types of SPA, and other covariates. In contrast, physical function was no longer significantly associated with depressive symptoms (B = -0.15, p = .19), after controlling for both types of SPA. There were no significant moderating effects of positive and negative SPA. Findings suggest that how positively and negatively older adults perceive their own aging may be important for their mental health while experiencing less physical function in late life.

Awareness of age-related changes in Norwegian individuals 50+. Short form questionnaire validation.

A questionnaire assessing awareness of positive and negative age-related changes (AARC gains and losses) was developed in the US and Germany, and validated for the UK and Brazilian populations. In this study, we validated the short-form measure (AARC-10 SF) in the Norwegian population aged 50 and over. In addition, the relationship between cognitive variables and AARC was examined. Cross-sectional analyses of data from 1,510 participants in the ongoing online PROTECT Norge study were used to explore and confirm the two-factor structure of AARC gains and AARC losses; reliability; measurement invariance across different population groups defined by sex, education level, employment, and in middle age, early old age, and advanced old age. We explored the relationship between AARC and demographic variables (defined in the same way as the population groups). We confirmed the two-factor structure (gains and losses) of the Norwegian translation of the AARC-10 SF. We did not find mutual correlations between related items in gains and losses, except for the physical health item from the gains dimension, which was positively correlated with all items of the losses dimension. Age, sex, marital status, employment, and university education predicted AARC gains and losses. The Norwegian translation of the AARC-10 SF captures individuals' positive and negative self-perceptions of age-related changes in their mental, physical, and cognitive health.

노인의 문제중심대처와 주관적 안녕감 : 노화인식의 조절효과

This study aimed to examine the effect of problem-focused coping on subjective well-being and the moderating effects of awareness of positive (gains) or negative (losses) age-related changes among elderly people. Specifically, this study predicted that problem-focused coping would be positively related to subjective well-being (hypothesis 1) and that the awareness of positive (hypothesis 2) or negative (hypothesis 3) age-related changes negatively moderated the influence of problem-focused coping and subjective well-being. For this purpose, we conducted an online survey with 350 elderly participants. The results were as follows: First, problem-focused coping positively predicted subjective well-being; Second, awareness of positive age-related change mitigated the relationship between problem-focused coping and subjective well-being; However, the moderating effect of awareness of negative age-related change was not significant. Finally, the implications and limitations of this study were discussed.

Awareness of age-related change, chronological age, subjective age and proactivity: An empirical study in China.

An aging workforce and the increasing value placed on employees' proactivity are two important features of current workplaces. We address the extent to which this proactivity is affected by age and aging. The study has two objectives. First, it aims to validate the concept of awareness of age-related change (AARC) in the Chinese context. Second, it compares the explanatory power of AARC with that of chronological age and subjective age in predicting three types of proactivity: task proactivity, development proactivity and organization proactivity. We used the ten-item AARC instrument in a survey of teachers (n = 421, mean age = 41.0) in China, and validated its content by comparing the responses of a subsample of these teachers (n = 33, mean age = 42.5) to questions asked in a semi-structured interview. This confirmed the validity of the instrument's content, and its applicability beyond North America and Europe, in a Chinese context. We then show that awareness of positive and negative age-related changes (AARC-Gains and AARC-Losses) are, respectively, positively and negatively associated with the three types of proactivity, and that they are better predictors than chronological age and subjective age. The research adds weight to challenges to negative age stereotyping—-that older employees are set in their ways and less proactive—-and to claims about the value of AARC for measuring aging, by showing that this factor can predict outcomes beyond health and the concerns of older adults.

Differences in awareness of positive and negative age-related changes accounting for variability in health outcomes

Higher awareness of positive age-related changes (AARC gains) is related to better mental health, whereas higher awareness of negative age-related changes (AARC losses) is related to poorer mental and physical health. So far perceived gains and losses have been explored separately, but people report gains and losses concurrently in varying degrees, and different profiles of gains and losses may be differentially associated with health. We identified profiles of gains and losses and explored whether different profiles differed in physical, mental, and cognitive health. We used cross-sectional data from the PROTECT study (N = 6192; mean (SD) age = 66.1 (7.0)). Using latent profile analysis, a four-class solution showed the best model fit. We found that 45% of people perceived many gains and few losses (Class 1); 24% perceived moderate gains and few losses (Class 2); 24% perceived many gains and moderate losses (Class 3); 7% perceived many gains and many losses (Class 4). Analysis of variance and Chi-squared tests showed that Class 1 had relatively better physical, mental, and cognitive health, followed by Classes 2, 3, and 4. Experiencing one’s ageing to a high degree as gain may be related to better health only when individuals interpret ageing as involving low levels of loss across several life domains. Risk in terms of poorer health emerged in those who perceived high losses. Considering gains and losses in parallel, rather than separately, may lead to a more fine-tuned understanding of relations with health.

Exploring awareness of age-related changes among over 50s in the UK: findings from the PROTECT study.

Older people describe positive and negative age-related changes, but we do not know much about what contributes to make them aware of these changes. We used content analysis to categorize participants' written comments and explored the extent to which the identified categories mapped onto theoretical conceptualizations of influences on awareness of age-related change (AARC). Cross-sectional observational study. The study sample comprised 609 UK individuals aged 50 years or over (mean (SD) age = 67.9 (7.6) years), enrolled in the PROTECT study. Between January and March 2019, participants provided demographic information, completed a questionnaire assessing awareness of age-related change (AARC-10 SF), and responded to an open-ended question asking them to comment on their responses. While some of the emerging categories were in line with the existing conceptual framework of AARC (e.g. experiencing negative changes and attitudes toward aging), others were novel (e.g. engagement in purposeful activities or in activities that distract from age-related thoughts). Analysis revealed some of the thought processes involved in selecting responses to the questionnaire items, demonstrating different ways in which people make sense of specific items. Results support the ability of the AARC questionnaire to capture perceived age-related changes in cognitive functioning, physical and mental health, and engagement in social activities and in healthy and adaptive behaviors. However, findings also suggest ways of enriching the theoretical conceptualization of how AARC develops and offer insights into interpretation of responses to measures of AARC.

What does feeling younger or older than one’s chronological age mean to men and women? Qualitative and quantitative findings from the PROTECT study

Objective We explored which factors are associated with subjective age (SA), i.e. feeling younger, the same as, or older than one’s chronological age, and whether these factors differ between men and women and between two age sub-groups. Design Cross-sectional study using qualitative and quantitative data for 1457 individuals (mean age= 67.2 years). Main outcome measures Participants reported how old they feel they are and provided comments in relation to their SA judgments. Results By using content analysis participants’ comments were assigned to 13 categories, grouped into three higher-order categories (antecedents of age-related thoughts, mental processes, and issues when measuring subjective age). SA may result from the interaction between factors that increase or decrease age-related thoughts and mental processes that individuals use to interpret age-related changes. Chi-squared tests show that individuals reporting an older SA are more likely to experience significant negative changes and to engage in negative age-related thoughts than individuals reporting an age-congruent SA or a younger SA. Women experience a more negative SA and more age-salient events than men. Conclusion Individuals reporting an older SA may benefit from interventions promoting adaptation to negative age-related changes. There is the need to eradicate negative societal views of older women.

Muscle and tendon adaptations to moderate load eccentric vs. concentric resistance exercise in young and older males

Resistance exercise training (RET) is well-known to counteract negative age-related changes in both muscle and tendon tissue. Traditional RET consists of both concentric (CON) and eccentric (ECC) contractions; nevertheless, isolated ECC contractions are metabolically less demanding and, thus, may be more suitable for older populations. However, whether submaximal (60% 1RM) CON or ECC contractions differ in their effectiveness is relatively unknown. Further, whether the time course of muscle and tendon adaptations differs to the above is also unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to establish the time course of muscle and tendon adaptations to submaximal CON and ECC RET. Twenty healthy young (24.5 ± 5.1 years) and 17 older males (68.1 ± 2.4 years) were randomly allocated to either isolated CON or ECC RET which took place 3/week for 8 weeks. Tendon biomechanical properties, muscle architecture and maximal voluntary contraction were assessed every 2 weeks and quadriceps muscle volume every 4 weeks. Positive changes in tendon Young’s modulus were observed after 4 weeks in all groups after which adaptations in young males plateaued but continued to increase in older males, suggesting a dampened rate of adaptation with age. However, both CON and ECC resulted in similar overall changes in tendon Young’s modulus, in all groups. Muscle hypertrophy and strength increases were similar between CON and ECC in all groups. However, pennation angle increases were greater in CON, and fascicle length changes were greater in ECC. Notably, muscle and tendon adaptations appeared to occur in synergy, presumably to maintain the efficacy of the muscle–tendon unit.

Cross-sectional association between objective cognitive performance and perceived age-related gains and losses in cognition.

Evidence linking subjective concerns about cognition with poorer objective cognitive performance is limited by reliance on unidimensional measures of self-perceptions of aging (SPA). We used the awareness of age-related change (AARC) construct to assess self-perception of both positive and negative age-related changes (AARC gains and losses). We tested whether AARC has greater utility in linking self-perceptions to objective cognition compared to well-established measures of self-perceptions of cognition and aging. We examined the associations of AARC with objective cognition, several psychological variables, and engagement in cognitive training. Cross-sectional observational study. The sample comprised 6056 cognitively healthy participants (mean [SD] age = 66.0 [7.0] years); divided into subgroups representing middle, early old, and advanced old age. We used an online cognitive battery and measures of global AARC, AARC specific to the cognitive domain, subjective cognitive change, attitudes toward own aging (ATOA), subjective age (SA), depression, anxiety, self-rated health (SRH). Scores on the AARC measures showed stronger associations with objective cognition compared to other measures of self-perceptions of cognition and aging. Higher AARC gains were associated with poorer cognition in middle and early old age. Higher AARC losses and poorer cognition were associated across all subgroups. Higher AARC losses were associated with greater depression and anxiety, more negative SPA, poorer SRH, but not with engagement in cognitive training. Assessing both positive and negative self-perceptions of cognition and aging is important when linking self-perceptions to cognitive functioning. Objective cognition is one of the many variables - alongside psychological variables - related to perceived cognitive losses.

Higher Awareness of Positive and Negative Age-Related Changes Relate to Lower Objective Cognitive Scores

Existing evidence suggests that individuals’ subjective experience of cognitive decline may be a risk state for dementia. However, whether self-awareness of positive changes confer cognitive protection is unknown. We examined the extent to which awareness of positive (AARC gains) and negative (AARC losses) age-related changes explains variability in objective cognitive performance in a sample of 6,231 UK residents (Mean age= 66.1 years, 75.9% women) without cognitive impairment. We tested a structural equation model with AARC gains and losses as predictors of cognitive performance and depressive symptoms as a mediator of the association of AARC losses with cognitive performance. The model fit the data well. The correlation between AARC gains and losses was negligible, yet higher levels of both AARC gains and losses predicted poorer cognitive scores. Hence, higher AARC gains did not confer cognitive protection. This unexpected pattern of results underscores the complexity of mapping individuals’ awareness onto objective outcomes.

Health Differences Among People With Varying Profiles of Awareness of Positive and Negative Age-Related Changes

Higher awareness of negative age-related changes (AARC-losses) is related to poorer mental and physical health whereas higher awareness of positive age-related changes (AARC-gains) is related to better mental health. Associations of health with AARC-gains and losses have been explored separately, but often people experience gains and losses concurrently. Using latent profile analysis, we identified at the cross-sectional level patterns of AARC-gains and losses and explored whether groups with distinct profiles of AARC-gains and losses differed in physical, mental, and cognitive health, and demographic characteristics. Analyses were based on the large-scale PROTECT study conducted in the UK (N= 6,192; mean age= 66.10(SD= 7.04); 76% women). A four-group solution revealed the best model fit (Akaike’s information criterion= 156,061.93; Bayesian information criterion= 156,418.67); 45% of participants perceived many AARC-gains and few losses (Group 1); 24% of participants perceived moderate AARC-gains and few losses (Group 2); 24% of participants perceived many AARC-gains and moderate losses (Group 3); and 7% of participants perceived many AARC-gains and many losses (Group 4). The four groups differed meaningfully in health; Group 1 was the most healthy, followed by Groups 2, 3 and 4. Participants in Group 1 were most likely to perceive their health as excellent, reported the lowest levels of depression and anxiety, and showed the best cognitive performance. On average participants in Group 1 were younger, and more likely to be female, employed, and married, compared to other groups. Considering the co-existence of gains and losses is important when relating awareness of age-related changes to health.

The Effects of Age Stereotypes on Physical and Mental Health Are Mediated by Self-perceptions of Aging.

Although the evidence linking views on aging (VoA) with aging outcomes is robust, little is known about how different types of VoA may interact to influence such outcomes. Therefore, this study examined two types of VoA, age stereotypes (AS), representing general VoA, and self-perceptions of aging (SPA), representing personal VoA. We operationalized SPA in terms of awareness of age-related change (AARC), distinguishing between gain- and loss-related SPA (e.g., awareness of positive and negative age-related changes, respectively). Based on theoretical reasoning, we hypothesized that AS would be an antecedent of SPA, and that the effect of AS on physical and mental health would be mediated by SPA. A total of 819 German and U.S. adults aged 40-98 completed a survey on VoA, physical health, and mental health at baseline and 2.5 years later. Structural equation modeling with latent variables was used to examine the effects of Time 1 AS (predictor) and Time 2 gain- and loss-related SPA (mediators) on physical and mental health outcomes. As hypothesized, AS predicted later SPA. Loss-related SPA mediated the effect of AS on physical health; both gain- and loss-related SPA mediated the effect of AS on mental health. Congruent with theoretical assumptions, our findings provide empirical support for a directional pathway by which AS shape later SPA. We conclude that AS and SPA may affect physical health outcomes more strongly than mental health outcomes. Studies that assess both types of VoA are needed to illuminate the pathways by which VoA influence aging outcomes.

The cross-sectional relationship between pain and awareness of age-related changes.

Background:Awareness of positive and negative age-related changes (AARC gains and losses) captures the perceived changes that older individuals experience in several domains of their lives including physical, cognitive and social functioning; interpersonal relationships; and lifestyle. Exploring antecedents of AARC is important to identify those individuals that could benefit the most from interventions promoting positive experiences of ageing and/or adaptation to age-related changes. This study investigates the experience of pain as a predictor of lower AARC gains and higher AARC losses.Methods:Analyses are based on cross-sectional data from the PROTECT cohort (2019); 1013 UK residents (mean (SD; range) age: 65.3 (7.1; 51.4–92) years, 84.4% women) completed measures of AARC and pain and provided demographic information. Linear regression models were fitted to examine pain as a predictor of AARC gains and AARC losses.Results:Higher levels of pain predicted more AARC losses both before (regression coefficient, B = 0.36; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.29 to 0.42, p-value < 0.001; R2 = 0.11) and after adjusting for demographic covariates (B = 0.34; 95% CI: 0.27 to 0.40; p-value < 0.001; Partial R2 = 0.11). Pain was not significantly associated with AARC gains (unadjusted B = 0.05; 95% CI: −0.03 to 0.12, p-value = 0.21; Partial R2 = 0.01).Conclusion:Individuals experiencing pain may perceive more AARC losses. Interventions aiming to decrease levels of pain could include a component targeting self-perceptions of ageing and/or promoting acceptance of the negative changes that can happen with ageing.Statement of significance:The predictive role of greater levels of pain for more negative perceptions of age-related changes extends the literature on the negative psychological outcomes of pain and on predictors of perceived awareness of age-related changes (AARC). As individuals experiencing pain may be more at risk of perceiving their own ageing in a more negative way, they may benefit from interventions that combine strategies to reduce levels of pain and the interference that pain exerts on their daily activities with an educational component enhancing positive self-perceptions of ageing and promoting acceptance of negative age-related changes.

International relevance of two measures of awareness of age-related change (AARC)

BackgroundA questionnaire assessing awareness of positive and negative age-related changes (AARC gains and losses) was developed in the US and Germany. We validated the short form of the measure (AARC-10 SF) and the cognitive functioning subscale from the 50-item version of the AARC (AARC-50) questionnaire in the UK population aged 50 and over.MethodsData from 9410 participants (Mean (SD) age = 65.9 (7.1)) in the PROTECT cohort were used to explore and confirm the psychometric properties of the AARC measures including: validity of the factor structure; reliability; measurement invariance across men and women, individuals with and without a university degree, and in middle age, early old age, and advanced old age; and convergent validity with measures of self-perception of aging and mental, physical, and cognitive health. We explored the relationship between demographic variables (age, sex, marital status, employment, and university education) and AARC.ResultsWe confirmed the two-factor structure (gains and losses) of the AARC-10 SF and the AARC-50 cognitive functioning subscale. Both scales showed good reliability and good convergent validity for AARC losses, but weak convergent validity for AARC gains. For both scales metric invariance was held for the two subgroups defined by education level and age. For the AARC-50 subscale, but not for the AARC-10 SF, strong invariance was also held for the two subgroups defined by sex. Age, sex, marital status, employment, and university education predicted AARC gains and losses.ConclusionsThe AARC-10 SF and AARC-50 cognitive functioning subscale identify UK individuals who perceive age-related changes in their mental, physical, and cognitive health.

Beta-hydroxy-beta-methyl-butyrate blunts negative age-related changes in body composition, functionality and myofiber dimensions in rats

PurposeTo determine the effects of 16 wk. of beta-hydroxy-beta-methylbutyrate (HMB) administration on age-related changes in functionality and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) determined myofiber dimensions.MethodsTwelve young (44 wk.), 6 middle-aged (60 wk.), 10 old (86 wk.), and 5 very old (102 wk.) male Fisher-344 rat's body composition and grip strength were assessed at baseline. Following, 6 young, 6 middle-aged, 5 old and 5 very old rats were sacrificed for baseline myofiber dimensions and gene transcript factor expression in the soleus (SOL) and gastrocnemius (GAS). The remaining 6 young and 5 old rats were given HMB for 16 wk. and then sacrificed.ResultsFat mass increased in the middle-aged control condition (+49%) but not the middle-aged HMB condition. In addition, fat mass declined (-56%) in the old HMB condition but not the old control condition. Normalized strength declined and maintained respectively in the control and HMB conditions from 44 to 60 wk. and increased (+23%) (p < 0.05) from 86 to 102 wk. in only the HMB condition. Declines occurred in myofiber size in all muscles from 44 to 102 wk. in the control condition(-10 to -15%), but not HMB condition. Atrogin-1 mRNA expression in the SOL and GAS muscles was greater in the 102-wk control condition than all other conditions: SOL (+45%) and GAS (+100%). This elevation was blunted by HMB in the 102 wk. old SOL. There was a condition effect in the SOL for myogenin, which significantly increased (+40%) only in the 102-wk. HMB group relative to the 44-wk. group.ConclusionsHMB may blunt age-related losses of strength and myofiber dimensions, possibly through attenuating the rise in protein breakdown.

Identity Processes and Memory Controllability in Middle and Later Adulthood

Memory is a salient area of functioning in adulthood known to be influenced by beliefs about performance. To date, individual variations in memory beliefs have not been systematically examined. The present study used hierarchical linear regressions to examine the relationship between Memory Controllability Index (MCI) subscales and identity processes in 250 adults ( M = 58.01, 40 to 91 years), controlling for age, gender, and self-rated health. The ability to integrate age-related changes into identity was positively related to MCI scales measuring assessment of ability, potential to improve memory, and belief in the value of using memory strategies. The identity scale measuring negative age-related changes was related to lower memory self-assessment, ability to improve, and the belief that memory decline is inevitable. Contrary to expectation, the tendency to resist making changes in identity was not related to controllability. Findings support the utility of understanding memory-related beliefs in middle and later adulthood in terms of identity processes.

Psychosocial outcomes in later life: A multivariate model.

A conceptual model was developed to identify developmental self-regulatory pathways to optimal psychosocial outcomes in adulthood. The model delineates influences among age, possible selves, developmental processes (i.e., coping, control), and well-being. Results showed age effects on all constructs except selective control. Three consistently common predictors of well-being (i.e., goal pursuit, goal adjustment, and optimization) emerged. The effects of age on well-being were differentially mediated by developmental processes. Specifically, negative age-related changes in offensive processes (i.e., goal attainment) were offset by positive influences of defensive processes (i.e., goal adjustment), which had the net effect of preserving well-being. The model demonstrates a more optimistic pattern of aging in which gains offset losses leading to positive outcomes and highlights the importance of examining both independent and combined influences of age, self, and developmental processes on psychosocial outcomes.

Schools, Families, and Early Adolescents

Although most individuals pass through adolescence without excessively high levels of "storm and stress," many individuals experience difficulty during this period. Why? Is there something unique about this developmental period that puts individuals at greater risk for difficulty? This paper focuses on these questions and advances the hypothesis that some of the "negative" psychological and behavioral changes associated with adolescent development result from a mismatch between the needs of developing adolescents and their experiences at school and at home. It provides theoretical and empirical examples of how this mismatch develops, how it is linked to negative age-related changes in early adolescents' motivation, self-perceptions, self-evaluations, and psychological competence, and how we could provide more developmentally appropriate social environments, particularly at school.

Development during adolescence. The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents' experiences in schools and in families.

Although most individuals pass through adolescence without excessively high levels of "storm and stress," many do experience difficulty. Why? Is there something unique about this developmental period that puts adolescents at risk for difficulty? This article focuses on this question and advances the hypothesis that some of the negative psychological changes associated with adolescent development result from a mismatch between the needs of developing adolescents and the opportunities afforded them by their social environments. It provides examples of how this mismatch develops in the school and in the home and how it is linked to negative age-related changes in early adolescents' motivation and self-perceptions. Ways in which more developmentally appropriate social environments can be created are discussed.