Need For Additional Protection Research Articles

398. Increased Risk of Severe COVID-19 Outcomes Across all Groups of Individuals with Hematological Malignancies, Solid Tumors, and Solid Organ Transplants Compared with the General Population: Initial Results from INFORM, a Retrospective Health Database Observational Study in England

Abstract Background Despite COVID-19 vaccination, individuals who are immunocompromised due to underlying conditions, such as cancer and organ transplant, are at a greater risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes compared with the general population that is vaccinated. However, there are limited data quantifying this risk during the omicron-predominant period, particularly for important sub-groups that may have variable risk for severe COVID-19 outcomes. We report initial findings from the INFORM study describing the clinical burden and severe COVID-19 outcomes in patients with immunocompromised conditions (IC) in England, UK in 2022. Methods This retrospective cohort study utilized National Health Service database in England. The study period was from Jan 1–Dec 31, 2022 and the baseline period for assessment of patient characteristics, including IC, was from Jan 1, 2017–Dec 31, 2021. Definitions of IC sub-groups are provided in Table 1. Severe COVID-19 outcomes were defined as COVID-19–related hospitalization, COVID-19–related intensive care unit (ICU) admission, and/or COVID-related death. Results Of the 11,990,730 individuals in the general population sample aged ≥ 12 years, 468,745 (3.9%) were immunocompromised and accounted for approximately one-quarter of severe COVID-19–related outcomes (22% of hospitalizations, 28% of ICU admissions, and 23% of deaths; Table 2). The risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes was higher in well-recognized IC conditions (eg, solid organ transplants, hematological malignancies, and solid tumors) across all the sub-groups compared with the overall population (Table 2). Conclusion There is an increased burden in the prevalence of severe COVID-19 outcomes among all individuals with IC, highlighting the need for additional protection to target this population. Disclosures Richard McNulty, MD, AstraZeneca: Employee Sabada Dube, PhD, AstraZeneca: Employee Yi Lu, PhD, Evidera: Employee Sophie Graham, MSc, Evidera: Employee Sofie Arnetorp, MS, AstraZeneca: Employee Nahila Justo, PhD, MBA, Evidera: Employee|Karolinska Institute: Employee Renata Yokota, PhD, AstraZeneca: Employee Kathryn Evans, MPH, Evidera: Employee Sudhir Venkatesan, MPH, PhD, AstraZeneca: Employee Mark Yates, PhD, Evidera: Employee Sylvia Taylor, PhD, MPH, MBA, AstraZeneca: Stocks/Bonds Jennifer Quint, PhD, AstraZeneca: Grant/Research Support|Evidera: Grant/Research Support|GlaxoSmithKline: Grant/Research Support|Insmed: Grant/Research Support Rachael A. Evans, PhD FRCP, AstraZeneca: Advisor/Consultant|Boehringer: Advisor/Consultant|Evidera: Advisor/Consultant

Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines at preventing emergency department or urgent care encounters and hospitalizations among immunocompromised adults: An observational study of real-world data across 10 US states from August-December 2021

BackgroundImmunocompromised (IC) persons are at increased risk for severe COVID-19 outcomes and are less protected by 1–2 COVID-19 vaccine doses than are immunocompetent (non-IC) persons. We compared vaccine effectiveness (VE) against medically attended COVID-19 of 2–3 mRNA and 1–2 viral-vector vaccine doses between IC and non-IC adults. MethodsUsing a test-negative design among eight VISION Network sites, VE against laboratory-confirmed COVID-19–associated emergency department (ED) or urgent care (UC) events and hospitalizations from 26 August-25 December 2021 was estimated separately among IC and non-IC adults and among specific IC condition subgroups. Vaccination status was defined using number and timing of doses. VE for each status (versus unvaccinated) was adjusted for age, geography, time, prior positive test result, and local SARS-CoV-2 circulation. ResultsWe analyzed 8,848 ED/UC events and 18,843 hospitalizations among IC patients and 200,071 ED/UC events and 70,882 hospitalizations among non-IC patients. Among IC patients, 3-dose mRNA VE against ED/UC (73% [95% CI: 64–80]) and hospitalization (81% [95% CI: 76–86]) was lower than that among non-IC patients (ED/UC: 94% [95% CI: 93–94]; hospitalization: 96% [95% CI: 95–97]). Similar patterns were observed for viral-vector vaccines. Transplant recipients had lower VE than other IC subgroups. ConclusionsDuring B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant predominance, IC adults received moderate protection against COVID-19–associated medical events from three mRNA doses, or one viral-vector dose plus a second dose of any product. However, protection was lower in IC versus non-IC patients, especially among transplant recipients, underscoring the need for additional protection among IC adults.

Этические проблемы проведения фармакотерапии и клинических исследований у пациентов с деменцией

Dementia raises many ethical issues associated with stages of dementia such as the appearance of preclinical and asymptomatic patients who are, however, at risk of dementia. Thus, physicians come across ethical issues about preventive measures, disclosure of risks and protection from stigmatization and discrimination. Despite efforts to prevent dementia, it is also necessary to solve ethical issues related to the study of ways to alleviate the symptoms of clinical dementia, with the need for additional protection of patients with dementia when prescribing pharmacotherapy. One of the possible ways to solve these issues should be to use an integrated approach to conducting clinical trials and analyzing the ethical, legal and social consequences of dementia, for which it is necessary to include the collection of ethics-related data in the design of the dementia study itself.

Kidney Transplant and Dialysis Patients Remain at Increased Risk for Succumbing to COVID-19.

Immunocompromised patients have been at an increased risk of succumbing to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) since the beginning of the pandemic. Here, we analyzed mortality and case fatality data from dialysis and kidney transplant patients, and compared each with an age-matched subgroup of the general population. We found that both patients on dialysis and kidney transplant patients remain at increased risk of succumbing to COVID-19 despite all available countermeasures. The analyses underline the need for additional protection for this vulnerable population.

Investigation of castability, mechanical, corrosion properties and flammability of ML-OPB and EWZ43 magnesium alloys

Magnesium alloys are usually considered as structural materials when the weight reduction is important - in aircraft and space industry for example. In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of new generation ignition-proof high-strength magnesium alloys in the design of aircraft parts. The properties of new ignition-proof casting magnesium alloys ML-OPB (Mg–6.7Y–2.6Zn–0.5Zr–0.35Ce– 0.35Yb; wt.%) and EWZ43 (Mg–3.8Y–4.4Nd–0.6Zr–0.6Zn; wt.%) were investigated and compared with properties of commercial magnesium alloys. The microstructure of investigated alloys in the as-cast condition comprises of a magnesium solid solution and a significant amount of eutectic. Heat treatment according to the T6 mode results in change in the eutectic phase’s morphology and also to their partial dissolution in the magnesium matrix. Long-term high-temperature holding, simulating operating conditions (500 h at 300 °C), leads to the formation of precipitates along the grain boundaries in both alloys, significantly reducing the mechanical properties. During the oxidation of the samples, it was established that the main components that involved into the oxide film and provides the protective properties of the alloys is Y, Nd and Yb. The investigated alloys have a high strength, which is not lower than that of the ML10 alloy. At the same time, the advantage of the ML-OPB alloy is a high elongation at fracture, while the EWZ43 alloy is characterized by high strength. The corrosion rate of the investigated alloys exceeds the corrosion rate of known commercial ML10 and AZ91 alloys, which implies the need for additional protection against corrosion of investigated alloys. At the same time, the castability of ML-OPB and EWZ43 alloys is no lower than that of most commercial magnesium alloys. An oxide film with high Y content and high protective properties is formed when the alloys interact with the sand mold bonded with furan resin. The ignition temperature of the investigated alloys is 100–150 °C higher than that of the ML10 alloy. The flammability test of alloys in the flame of a gas burner, made on cone samples and typical aircraft castings «bracket», showed that ML-OPB and EWZ43 alloys are almost non-flammable under the conditions of experiment.

ГАСТРОНОМІЧНИЙ ПОТЕНЦІАЛ НЕМАТЕРІАЛЬНОЇ КУЛЬТУРНОЇ СПАДЩИНИ ЮНЕСКО ТА ТУРИЗМ

The aim of the research is to analyze the gastronomic potential of the intangible cultural heritage of UNESCO (ICH), to substantiate the possibilities of its use in tourism, including the accordance with UNWTO tourism macro-regions, to improve the conceptual and terminological apparatus. The research methodology is based on the application of scientific methods, such as analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, generalization, etc. The statistical method of information processing was used in the study of quantitative indicators regarding the gastronomic component of intangible cultural heritage, the cartographic method was used in the geospatial analysis according to the research topic based on the tourist macro-regions of the UNWTO, the graphic method contributed to the reflection of statistical materials in diagrams, etc. Results. The gastronomic potential of UNESCO's intangible cultural heritage is analyzed. The elements of the gastronomic heritage were identified in accordance with the Lists of the ICH, quantitative indicators were analyzed. The were highlighted, and tourist opportunities were revealed. The gastronomic potential of the UNESCO ICH in relation to the UNWTO tourist macro-regions was analyzed and the tourist opportunities were substantiated. The concept of "gastronomic heritage" was clarified. The need for additional protection of the ICH, including gastronomic heritage, during military aggression at the level of international institutions was underlined. Scientific novelty. The conceptual and terminological apparatus of UNESCO heritage, the concept of "gastronomic heritage", were improved. The gastronomic potential of the ICH was analyzed in accordance with the UNWTO tourism macro-regions. Practical significance. Research materials can be taken into account when forming the lists of intangible cultural heritage, can be used in the development of a tourist product, creation of tours with a gastronomic and culinary purpose or component, as well as in the training of tourism specialists.

Surge analysis in a centrifugal compressor using a dimensionless surge number

Surge protection via the installation of an anti-surge control valve is indispensable in centrifugal compression systems, and the designs of such valves are often specified in the early design phase of centrifugal compression systems. However, additional recycle valve piping, such as hot or cold gas bypass valves, could be required in the case of emergency shutdowns. Furthermore, design verification via dynamic simulations is crucial in the engineering workflow. Because of the unavailability of design guidelines in the early design phase, only late verification is possible, necessitating system redesign when dynamic simulation results evidence the need for additional protection. This study presents a compressor surge distribution map by analyzing sensitivity parameters and establishing a new dimensionless number called the “surge number” (Ns). The surge distribution map is used to classify the safe and unsafe areas for surge protection using numerical threshold values. The map is to be used as a preliminary guideline for surge protection for engineers to quickly review the system and take additional protection measures in the early phase of design.

A novel method for double encapsulation of C-phycocyanin using aqueous two phase systems for extension of shelf life.

Spirulina platensis is having high nutritive value due to pigments such as chlorophyll-a, phycobiliproteins (especially phycocyanins) and carotenoids. In our present work, C-phycocyanin (C-PC) was extracted from dry biomass of Spirulina platensis. C-PC being heat sensitive, reiterates the need for additional protection during drying (micro encapsulation). Accordingly, a novel method employing aqueous two phase systems (ATPSs) as carrier materials to achieve double encapsulation was studied for the first time. PEG 4000/Potassium phosphate and PEG 6000/Dextran were used at already standardized tie line length, at different volume ratios (by varying the total phase composition). ATPS at each volume ratio acted as different carrier materials offering varied degree of heat protection during double encapsulation while maltodextrin, being the conventional carrier material, was used for comparison. The best results of spray dried powders using PEG (4% w/w)/Potassium phosphate salt (18%, w/w) and PEG (6%)/Dextran (10%, w/w) phase systems as carrier materials were compared with conventional encapsulation (MDX as a carrier material) and freeze dying as control. PEG/Dextran as a carrier material with volume ratio of 0.25 resulted in the highest retention of blue colour (b*value), purity (0.43) as well as yield (YEP) of 94.99% w/w of C-PC, which could be stored for 6months without much reduction from initial powder characteristics. From the overall results, it can be concluded that ATPS can be used as an effective carrier material for double encapsulation of biomolecules such as C-PC with additional benefit of enhancing the purity.

Analysis of the corrosion behavior of steel reinforcement protected by phosphate coatings

The influence of phosphate coatings on the corrosion behavior of steel reinforcement in a chloride-containing environment was studied to determine the need for additional protection against corrosion. The main indicators of the corrosion rate of steel reinforcement with phosphate coatings in chloride-containing solutions were determined, confirming the high protective properties of these coatings. It was found that the corrosion rate of steel reinforcement protected by phosphate coatings is reduced by 3 times. The processes of electrochemical corrosion of steel reinforcement of strength class A500S from steel grade St3ps in concrete under the influence of aggressive environments containing chloride ions (2 % MgCl2 solution and HCl solution with pH = 5) were studied. The kinetics of the corrosion process of steel reinforcement with and without protective phosphate coatings in solutions of various compositions has been studied. The change in mass of steel reinforcement protected by phosphate coatings is 3-4 times less than that of samples without coating. The surface potential of steel reinforcement with phosphate films changes significantly more slowly than that of unprotected samples.

Corrosion resistance of steel reinforcement in polymer silicate shyngizite concrete

Polymersilicate concrete is used for structures of industrial buildings in many industries, where production processes form an acidic wet- gas operating environment. The lightweight polymer silicate shungizite concrete, proposed by the author for external walls, can also be attributed to these materials. The polymersilicate composition is based on the components of schungite and schungizite. The composition also included liquid glass, sodium silicofluoride and furyl alcohol. These ingredients are usually adopted for polymersilicate concrete. Previously, the author carried out the research of physical and mechanical properties of the composition. The components based on schungite and schungizite were chosen because of their high acid resistance. The issue of the corrosion resistance of reinforcement in light polymer-silicate concrete has not been studied enough. This article presents the results of investigations of the corrosion resistance of steel reinforcement in polymer silicate shungizit concrete. The investigations were carried out in an airy environment of high humidity and in solutions of sulfuric acid of various concentrations. After the established time limits for corrosion testing, the corrosion of reinforcement in samples was not observed. Such a result was obtained due to the dense structure of the material and high acid resistance of the constituent components on the basis of schungite and shungizite. There is no need for additional protection of the concrete surface to prevent corrosion of the reinforcement in it . The author recommends the use of the material for reinforced structures of external walls exposed to an acidic wet- gas operating environment.

Demethylative Lactonization Provides a Shortcut to High-Yielding Syntheses of Lamellarins.

Modular gram-scale syntheses of the trimethyl ethers of lamellarins G (6) and D (7) were achieved from readily accessible precursors in the highest overall yields reported to date (6, six steps, 82%; 7, seven steps, 86%). A novel demethylative lactonization between an aryl methyl ether and a neighboring carboxylic acid was developed for creating the chromenone unit of the targets to avoid the need for additional protection and deprotection steps. The central pyrrole core was constructed in a late-stage [4 + 1] condensation between ethyl bromoacetate and an enaminone possessing the remaining components of the lamellarin skeleton. Exhaustive demethylation of both permethyl ethers 6 and 7 gave the polyphenolic natural lamellarins A4 (3) and H (5), respectively.

The legal nature of the relationship between the non-entrepreneurial company and its participants.

The legal nature of the relationship between the non-entrepreneurial company and its participants.

The Localised Corrosion Behaviour of Magnesium-Germanium Alloys Studied Using a Scanning Vibrating Electrode Technique

There is considerable current interest in identifying alloying elements for magnesium which produce an intrinsically corrosion resistant surface, thus precluding the need for additional protection by surface treatments and coatings. Recent work has demonstrated the promise of certain group IV and V elements as binary micro-alloying additions, which produce significant reduction in the corrosion rate of Mg 1,2. In the case of alloyed arsenic (As), a well-known cathodic poison, the reduced rate of corrosion is principally attributed to a profound suppression of cathodic activity on transition-metal impurity containing phases by inhibiting recombination of atomic hydrogen 3. Recent work has also demonstrated a similar phenomenon for Ge alloyed Mg 2, although the underlying reasons are less obvious than for the case of As. To clarify the role of Ge in significantly reducing the corrosion rate of Mg, an in situ scanning vibrating electrode technique (SVET) is herein employed to study localised corrosion behaviour of Mg-Ge alloys at open circuit conditions and during anodic polarisation when immersed in chloride containing aqueous solution. Upon immersion in the absence of external polarisation in aqueous solution containing concentrations of 0.5 M NaCl and below, SVET-derived area-averaged anodic current densities are shown to be extremely low, with no visible evidence of breakdown in the form of the dark filiform-like tracks reported over 24 h (and up to 90 h for a concentration of 0.1 M). However, when using concentrations of 1 M NaCl (aq) and greater, filiform-like localised corrosion features become established after initiation periods of ca.2 h or longer. In contrast to pure Mg, no cathodic activation of filament clusters are observed and residual tracks are shown to develop a white colour instead of the typical surface blackening observed on pure Mg. The addition of Ge is shown to strongly depress free corrosion potential (Ecorr) compared to pure Mg and it is proposed that it acts to maintain Ecorrbelow the apparent breakdown potential indefinitely for chloride ion concentrations of 0.5 M and lower. Under galvanostatic anodic polarisation, hydrogen evolution rates are significantly lower in comparison to pure Mg and no localised cathodic activity is detected for the duration of the experiment. In this respect the behaviour of Ge-alloyed Mg closely mirrors that of the Mg-As system, but with the benefit of intrinsic corrosion resistance bestowed by a non-toxic alloying addition.

Decentralizing the lawmaking function: Private lawmaking markets and intellectual property rights in law

In a series of articles and a book published shortly before his death, Professor Larry Ribstein argued for decentralizing the lawmaking function, enabling private parties to make law, and harnessing the market as a force for legal innovation. As part of this project, Professor Ribstein, along with Professor Bruce Kobayashi, called for broader intellectual property (IP) rights in legal creations. Their argument relies on the conventional quasi-public goods rationale for IP rights. Innovators have suboptimal incentives to create new law in the absence of property rights because competitors can free ride on their creations. As a result, without IP rights, privately-made law would be created, as it is today, mostly as a byproduct of other activities such as litigation or political rent-seeking. And byproduct lawmaking is likely to produce suboptimal law. Broader IP rights solve the free rider problem and thus make possible a vigorous private lawmaking market.This article examines the case for granting broader IP rights in law as a way to incentivize legal innovation in a private lawmaking market. The discussion begins by briefly examining some of the benefits and costs of harnessing the private market to produce better law. With this background in place, the article then turns to the case for IP rights in law. It first surveys the limited scope of protection under current IP law and then discusses the benefits and costs of expanding IP rights. The article closes by focusing on some special problems with granting property rights in aspects of common law adjudication, such as litigation documents and judicial decisions.In the end, the goal is to inject a note of caution. Private lawmaking is more attractive for some types of legal innovation and less attractive for others, and it is not clear that broader IP rights are necessary or desirable to spur legal innovation in a private market. It might be best to proceed incrementally, by first removing the professional barriers to competition and then expanding IP rights only if experience with the new market supports the need for additional protection.

Decentralizing the Lawmaking Function: Private Lawmaking Markets and Intellectual Property Rights in Law

In a series of articles and a book published shortly before his untimely death, Professor Larry Ribstein argued for decentralizing the lawmaking function, enabling private parties to make law, and harnessing the market as a force for legal innovation. As part of this project, Professor Ribstein, along with Professor Bruce Kobayashi, called for broader intellectual property (IP) rights in legal creations. Their argument relies on the conventional quasi-public goods rationale for IP rights. Innovators have suboptimal incentives to create new law in the absence of property rights because competitors can free ride on their creations. As a result, without IP rights, privately-made law would be created, as it is today, mostly as a byproduct of other activities such as litigation or political rent-seeking. And byproduct lawmaking is likely to produce suboptimal law. Broader IP rights solve the free rider problem and thus make possible a vigorous private lawmaking market. This Article, which was written for a conference celebrating Professor Ribstein’s scholarship, examines the case for granting broader IP rights in law as a way to incentivize legal innovation in a private lawmaking market. The discussion begins by briefly examining some of the benefits and costs of harnessing the private market to produce better law. With this background in place, it then turns to the case for IP rights in law. The Article first surveys the limited scope of protection under current IP law and then discusses the benefits and costs of expanding IP rights. It closes by focusing on some special problems with granting property rights in aspects of common law adjudication, such as litigation documents and judicial decisions. In the end, the goal is to inject a note of caution. Private lawmaking is more attractive for some types of legal innovation and less attractive for others, and it is not clear that broader IP rights are necessary or desirable to spur legal innovation in a private market. It might be best to proceed incrementally, by first removing the professional barriers to competition and then expanding IP rights only if experience with the new market supports the need for additional protection.

Toward a Rational Exuberance for Ecosystem Services Markets

Abstract Ecosystem services markets have become a popular topic among environmental policymakers and ecosystem protection advocates. Their proponents view markets as a promising new way to finance conservation of threatened ecosystems worldwide at a time when the need for additional protection seems especially critical. Their advocates in forestry promise that such markets will soon offer new financial opportunities to forest landowners to augment or even replace income from the sale of timber, thereby increasing financial incentives for landowners to retain land in forests. But what is the real promise in ecosystem services markets and what can realistically be achieved by their implementation? We provide an overview of how environmental markets work in theory and discuss several issues that influence how effective they can be. We conclude that the promise of ecosystem services markets greatly depends on the particular circumstances of program implementation, including what services are to be traded and whether they are amenable to trading, the ability to enact and enforce regulation sufficient to induce trading, and how expected program results compare with those likely to arise from other conservation policy approaches.

Sexual conflict in chacma baboons, Papio hamadryas ursinus: absent males select for proactive females

We argue that, in the absence of an infanticidal threat from resident males, female chacma baboons favour polyandry because it may predispose multiple males to protect their infants from infanticide by immigrant males. This assumes that the most likely sire, or principal protector, of an infant may often be absent during its period of vulnerability, thereby creating the need for additional protection. Accordingly, we found that, on average, 47% of principal protectors were absent for at least part of an infant's vulnerable period. We predicted that, to secure additional protection, females should attempt to augment the paternity estimates of as many males as possible and, therefore, should seek to influence overall patterns of mating. In line with this prediction, we found that females actively solicited copulations from all guarding males and did so irrespective of their rank or the underlying probability of ovulation. By these means, females were able to elevate significantly the mating success, and presumably, in turn, the estimated total paternity probabilities, of these males. The apparently indiscriminate nature of the female strategy highlights how, in species where female choice is limited, females may be forced to maximize the potential of all mating opportunities afforded them by intermale competition.

Composition and biting activity of Anopheles (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Amazon region of Colombia.

To provide information for public health policy on mosquito nets in the Amazon region of Colombia, we conducted landing catches to estimate Anopheles species composition and biting activity. Two hundred twenty person-nights of catches were done in seven locations over a period of 14 mo. A total of 1,780 Anopheles mosquitoes were caught (8.1 per person-night). Among the nine species found, An. oswaldoi Peryassú was the most common (776 mosquitoes, 44%), followed by An. darlingi Root s.l. (498, 28%). An. oswaldoi was the most common species collected outdoors, where its biting rate dropped steadily from a peak of >15 bites/person-night at the start of the night (1800-1900 hours) to approximately equal to 2 bites/person-night before dawn. An. darlingi was the most common species collected indoors, with a biting rate of approximately equal to 3-4 bites/person-night until about midnight, when the rate dropped below 1 bite/person-night, before showing a secondary peak before dawn. Sixty-four mosquito nets were analyzed by the technique of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for levels of deltamethrin (DM). All but two (62) of these were reported by their owners to have been impregnated with insecticide, and 53 were found by HPLC to have deltamethrin. However, one half (32) of the nets had concentrations <4 mg/m2 and therefore were likely to have been inadequately protective. An inverse association was found between the reported time between washes and deltamethrin concentration. These findings show a need for additional protection from mosquitoes when not inside nets, as well as for more effective impregnation, possibly through wash-resistant insecticide formulation.

The Frail Elderly

Nurses caring for patients with orthopaedic problems often encounter elderly patients in their caseload. These patients have variable levels of functioning; some may be frail and, therefore, require greater assistance and possibly more time with their care. This loss of function and need for more assistance increases their vulnerability and creates challenges for nurses and other healthcare providers who are delivering patient care. This article offers a brief description of the frail elderly and examines their increasing vulnerability and their need for additional protection, preserving their dignity and respecting their autonomy, and how caring helps to guide nurses in addressing the special needs of this particularly vulnerable patient population. Sensitivity, patience, trust, compassion, and clinical competence matter when caring for the frail elderly.

Is eternal youth scientifically plausible?

As the popular saying goes, the only certain things in life are death and taxes. Given its inevitability, it is no surprise that death—and the ageing process that precedes it—has fascinated humans for centuries. However, it is only with the development of modern science that we are now beginning to understand why our bodies grow older and more frail until we eventually die. As theories have been put forward and refuted, the field of ageing research has oscillated between optimism and pessimism, flitting between the hope that ageing can be slowed or stopped, and the fear that it is inevitable and irreversible. The present mood is one of cautious optimism, based on studies showing that the average and maximum lifespans of rodents can be increased by 25–80% through restricting calorie intake or inhibiting the insulin growth factor 1 (IGF1) receptor (Holzenberger et al , 2003). In the worm Caenorhabditis elegans , in which increased longevity is easier to attain, the restriction of various reproductive and energy‐production pathways has increased maximum lifespan more than sixfold from 20 to 126 days (Kenyon et al , 1993; Murphy et al , 2003). According to Cynthia Kenyon from the University of California, San Francisco, USA, recent research—on C. elegans in her own laboratory, and on mammals, birds, insects, yeast and other organisms by other groups—has ushered in a new era in which significantly increasing human lifespan might be possible. “The real value of the work so far is that we now know lifespan is not a passive phenomenon. It's controlled by genes,” said Kenyon. Although some researchers are wary of drawing too many conclusions about mammalian ageing from work in lower organisms, it is now widely accepted that free radicals are the principal mediators of ageing in most species. During the synthesis of ATP, mitochondria produce …