Necessity Of Evolution Research Articles

Artificial intelligence versus human - a threat or a necessity of evolution?

Currently, technologies are actively shaping and intensifying the time of implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) systems, while at the same time the so-called soft skills that employers are looking for in future employees are becoming increasingly important. Thus, in today's situation, we have the possibility to use automatons and robots that successfully replace humans in many tasks, while at the same time there is a need to create teams based on such qualities as empathy, communication, ingenuity, intelligence and, above all, humanism, whose importance in creating a business perspective cannot be overestimated. The aim of this article is to analyse the research problem in case of social robots and the probable legal status of artificial intelligence in the future. The article will discuss the differences between artificial intelligence versus artificial consciousness. AI poses societal challenges, it is currently undergoing a number of important developments, and the law must be rapidly changed. Firstly, the difference between artificial intelligence and artificial consciousness is attempted to be demystified. Subsequently, the analysis of current legal status of Artificial Intelligence in EU will be conducted. Cyberspace and the Internet revolutionised human life. It brings benefits, but also hitherto unknown risks. However, this is an inherent problem of human development. Every new technology, every new invention has its advantages, but also disadvantages. It would seem that autonomous systems, using artificial intelligence, are a panacea for such problems. Perhaps so, but the security of cyberspace depends on a variety of factors that are sometimes beyond our control or, from another perspective, we ourselves create the threat, inspire it intentionally or through inadequacies, ignorance, and negligence.

Contingency and chance erase necessity in the experimental evolution of ancestral proteins.

The roles of chance, contingency, and necessity in evolution are unresolved because they have never been assessed in a single system or on timescales relevant to historical evolution. We combined ancestral protein reconstruction and a new continuous evolution technology to mutate and select proteins in the B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) family to acquire protein-protein interaction specificities that occurred during animal evolution. By replicating evolutionary trajectories from multiple ancestral proteins, we found that contingency generated over long historical timescales steadily erased necessity and overwhelmed chance as the primary cause of acquired sequence variation; trajectories launched from phylogenetically distant proteins yielded virtually no common mutations, even under strong and identical selection pressures. Chance arose because many sets of mutations could alter specificity at any timepoint; contingency arose because historical substitutions changed these sets. Our results suggest that patterns of variation in BCL-2 sequences - and likely other proteins, too - are idiosyncratic products of a particular and unpredictable course of historical events.

A review study on integrated farming systems

Integrated Farming systems (IFS), and methods of thinking about them, developed in place and time. Rapid change has occurred in the past two decades when agricultural and animal outputs rose, along with worries about their socio-economic and ecological tradeoffs. The use of farming systems research (FSR) to agricultural development was a reaction to issues emerging from a primarily reductionist approach to research and a cornucopian perspective of external inputs. Modern technology were either not accepted or produced unanticipated unfavorable trade-offs. This article examines definitions and types of FSR and the necessity for evolution in thinking about agricultural development. The article connects biophysical and socio-economic processes, provides a physical basis for the anthropomorphic notions of waste, and examines elements of objectivism and constructivism. It is claimed that FSR can only progress if the full significance of these problems is addressed in thinking about growth of IFS. The intricacy of the reality should make scientists think more carefully about the right approach that will bring people out of poverty. Research in Asia of replications of the renowned Bangladesh Grameen Bank micro-credit programs indicate that there is an ideal development for farm families in the sub-continent that even the impoverished aspire too. According to this experience impoverished women invest in little animals and the family bit by step climbs out of poverty. There is a significant and unmet need for study on local resources to respond to the requirements of these individuals.

EVOLUTION. Toward a prospective molecular evolution.

Fitness landscapes provide a prospective understanding of chance and necessity in evolution

Introduction to the Special Series

This collection of papers was presented at the meeting “Chance and Necessity in Evolution” in Ravello, Italy, 2010. The meeting was organized by Prof. Werber Arber, Giorgio Bernardi, Takashi Gojobori, and Daniel Hartl. This is the first special issue of GBE dedicated to a focused meeting, and we hope that readers find it attractive. Our thanks go to all of the contributing authors. Special thanks are due to Prof. Gerardo Marotta, president of the Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici, Napoli, for his support of this endeavor.

In memoriam: Jacques Monod (1910-1976).

Jacques Monod, born 100 years ago, was one of the main founders of molecular biology. A quotation of Roger Stanier seems to me of immediate relevance to the topic of this meeting on “Chance and necessity in evolution,” dedicated to the works of Jacques Monod:

التاريخ وحداثة الشعر

من اهم القضايا الفكرية، التي تحظى بالعناية قضية الحداثة ، فقد شغلت الدراسين في جميع العصور.غير ان الحداثة في الشعر، كان لها العناية الخاصة في العراق وفي البلاد العربية... وليس غريبا ان يرتبط مفهوم الحداثة بالتاريخ... او ان يكون التاريخ اهم بعد من ابعادها ... ذلك لان الشعر العربي تاريخي وهو يتحرك في مساحة من الماضي وان هذا الماضي فاعل فيه، على صعيد اللغة والصورة الادبية... وحين وجد بعض الشعراء ان تغيير الشعر وتحديثه اصبح من مستلزمات التطور ومن اساسيات التحديث ، كان الوقع الثقافي لا يستجيب لتوق الشعراء ، وان اندفاعهم في الحداثة الشعرية يصطدم بقوة الموروث وتجذره في العقل والوجدان... كما ان الذوق الادبي قد بُني على اساس من الايقاع والصورة والعاطفة من الصعب تغييرها او العبث باشكالها ... لكن التغيير كان واقعاَ ودونه سوف تتوقف حركة الشعر ، ويتضاءل عطاؤها .ربما تكثر الاسئلة كثرة ملحوظة بعد الذي شهدناه من تطور القصيدة في العراق وافادتها من المنجز الخمسيني او مفارقتها له . او بعد ما شهدناه من زهو بهذا الذي طلع به السياب ونازك والبياتي... فهو عند البعض بداية لابد من تجاوزها وعبورها سريعا.وان التغيير على مستوى الشعر لا يمكن ان يكون منفصلا عن تغيير على مستوى الفكر بشكل عام او الفلسفة ، ولابد ان يكون ضمن نظام من التطور يشمل الدراسات الاجتماعية واللغوية . او تقدم على مستوى الثقافة بشكل عام، او تطور في اشكال الوعي الفردي والاجتماعي ، او تغير في النظرة الى التاريخ والى الماضي وعلاقة ذلك بالتطلع الى المستقبل.أهم النتائجهناك نزوع عراقي نحو التجديد والتحديث , في كل مناحي الحياة , ولا سيما التجديد الأدبي والشعري اذ أن دعوات الحداثة الشعرية في الخمسينات انطلقت من العراق ومن بغداد تحديداَ . ان أي مشروع للنهضة أو التغيير , ينبغي أن ينطلق من أرض العراق تحديداَ فهذه الأرض قادرة على تجديد نفسها كل حين . وهي قادرة على تبني قاعدة حقيقية للتحديث عن المستوى الفكري والاجتماعي اذ نمت وترعرعت في أرض العراق . وان أي مشروع وافد ثقافي , أو معرفي او سياسي , لايمكن فرضه عن العراق , اذا لم يجد مكاناَ أساسياَ في أرضه . وهذا لايعني انعزالاَ ورفضاَ للتفاعل مع الآخر , لكنه يعني ،أن الفكر الانساني الأصيل , يجد استجابة طبيعية في أرض احتضنت الفكرة الانسانية .. فالعراق أرض رعت القوانين وتفاعلت مع الفكر في أجلى صورة , في دورات حضارتها المختلفة فالأفكار الأساسية في الحرية والديمقراطية وحقوق الانسان لابد أن تجد لها أساساَ ومتسعاَ في أرض رحبة كالعراق.

Complex organization in multicellularity as a necessity in evolution.

By introducing a dynamical system model of a multicellular system, it is shown that an organism with a variety of differentiated cell types and a complex pattern emerges through cell-cell interactions even without postulating any elaborate control mechanism. Such an organism is found to maintain a larger growth speed as an ensemble, by achieving a cooperative use of resources, than do simple homogeneous cells, which behave "selfishly." This suggests that the emergence of multicellular organisms with complex organization is a necessity in evolution. According to our theoretical model, there initially appear multipotent stem cells, which undergo stochastic differentiation to other cell types. With development and differentiation, both the chemical diversity and the complexity of intra-cellular dynamics are decreased, as a general consequence of our system. Robustness of the developmental process is also confirmed.

Artificial life VII: looking backward, looking forward (editor's introduction to the special issue).

This issue contains highlights from the Artificial Life VII conference, held at Reed College in August 2000 [1]. A few authors who presented papers at the conference were invited to revise and expand their papers for publication in this special issue. Freed from the artificial space limits of conference proceedings, their papers provide additional details and situate their work in a broader context. One additional paper on open problems in artificial life grew out of discussion at the end of the conference. All the papers show the breadth and depth of the work presented at the conference. All address very deep questions about living systems, and most build bridges to concrete biological data and generate experimentally testable predictions. The origin of multicellularity is one of the major transitions in the evolution of life, and differentiated multicellular life has apparently evolved independently many times. The developmental processes which create these multicellular organizations share three notable features. First, development starts with a homogeneous cell (or set of cells) that are multipotent, that is, have the ability to differentiate into many different types of specialized cells. Second, the developmental process has an intrinsic arrow of time because the differentiated cells that result are not multipotent. Third, the developmental process is stable in the face of perturbations that destroy clusters of cells. In “Complex Organization in Multicellularity as a Necessity in Evolution,” Chikara Furusawa and Kunihiko Kaneko provide a minimal model of cellular dynamics that explains these universal features of multicellular differentiation. Furusawa and Kaneko numerically simulated a one-dimensional chain of cells governed by randomly generated biochemical reaction networks. They found that, while competition for resources prevents resources from flowing through chains of undifferentiated cells, cellular differentiation allows cells to share resources throughout the cellular chain. Thus, although individual cells taken from undifferentiated chains can grow more quickly than cells from differentiated chains, chains of differentiated cells can grow more quickly than chains of undifferentiated cells. These results lead to a number of experimentally testable predictions about multicellularity in biological organisms and provide a mechanism by which multicellularity inevitably arises in the evolution of cellular differentiation. The genetic code is a nearly universal feature of life on earth, although it does have a few exceptions such as mitochondrial DNA. It is difficult to understand at first how the genetic code could evolve at all; a mutation at a given codon might be a selective advantage, of course, but any change in the code would entail wholesale changes at a vast proportion of codons. How could this but be disastrous? Hiroaki Takagi, Kunihiko Kaneko, and Tetsuya Yomo propose a solution to this problem in

Chance and necessity in evolution: lessons from RNA

The RNA folding map, understood as the relationship between sequences and secondary structures or shapes, exhibits robust statistical properties summarized by three notions: (1) the notion of a typical shape (that among all sequences of fixed length certain shapes are realized much more frequently than others), (2) the notion of shape space covering (that all typical shapes are realized in small neighborhood of any random sequence), and (3) the notion of a neutral network (that sequences folding into the same typical shape form networks that percolate through sequence space). The concept of a neutral network is particularly illuminating. Neutral networks loosen the requirements on the mutation rate for selection to remain effective. What needs to be preserved in a population is not a particular sequence, but rather a shape. This mandates a reformulation of the original (genotypic) error threshold in terms of a phenotypic error threshold confirming the intuition that more errors can be tolerated at higher degrees of neutrality. With regard to adaptation, neutrality has two seemingly contradictory effects: it acts as a buffer against mutations ensuring that a phenotype is preserved. Yet it is deeply enabling, because it permits evolutionary change to occur by allowing the sequence context to vary silently until a single point mutation can become phenotypically consequential. Neutrality also influences predictability of adaptive trajectories in seemingly contradictory ways. On the one hand it increases the uncertainty of their genotypic trace. At the same time neutrality structures the access from one shape to another, thereby including a topology among RNA shapes which permits a distinction between continuous and discontinuous shape transformations. To the extent that adaptive trajectories must undergo such transformations, their phenotypic trace becomes more predictable.

Necessity of evolution in cosmological γ-ray bursts

RESULTS from the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE)1 on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory show a relative deficiency of faint γ-ray bursts without any detectable anisotropy. This gives strong support to suggestions that the bursts originate at cosmological distances2, such that cosmic expansion reduces the detectability of faint (and therefore distant) sources relative to a uniformly filled euclidean space. But the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) observations of brighter bursts show no such deficiency, indicating that the bursts that it sees are at redshifts less than about one. The best-fit cosmological model based on PVO data (peak luminosity L0 = 2 x 1050erg s-1) with no evolution of the source population predicts, when extrapolated to the fainter sources, a factor of 40 more events than BATSE sees. Even the 3a limit from PVO (L0 = 9.1 x 1051 ergs-1) is barely consistent with the BATSE result. Evolution of the cosmological γ-ray burst sources with epoch therefore seems necessary if the PVO and BATSE data are to be reconciled. The required evolutionary trend is for fewer or fainter bursts at larger redshift.

The necessity of evolution: law and logic in Darwin's explanation

Modern accounts of evolutionary mechanism pay little attention to the pattern and logic of Darwin's explanation, but recognition of the logic of Darwin's explanation has significance for our understanding of evolution and for our appreciation of the extent to which Darwin's concept of evolutionary mechanism accords with modern evolutionary thought. Also, Darwin's explanation exemplifies the concept of a scientific ‘law’ and thus is of considerable value in helping learners to understand the nature of scientific explanation.