Near-infrared Spectral Range Research Articles

Systematic comparison of fluorescence imaging in the near-infrared and shortwave-infrared spectral range using clinical tumor samples containing cetuximab-IRDye800CW

Systematic comparison of fluorescence imaging in the near-infrared and shortwave-infrared spectral range using clinical tumor samples containing cetuximab-IRDye800CW

Swincloud: a hybrid network for cloud detection in thermal infrared remote sensing images

ABSTRACT Cloud cover is a significant factor affecting the effectiveness of satellite-based Earth observations. Existing cloud detection algorithms primarily rely on imaging data from satellite sensors in the visible to near-infrared spectral range, making it challenging to achieve day-and-night cloud monitoring. Convolutional neural networks have shown outstanding performance in previous cloud detection algorithms due to their robust ability to extract local information. However, their inherent inductive bias limits their capacity to learn long-range semantic information. To address these challenges, we proposed SwinCloud, a U-shaped semantic segmentation network based on an enhanced Swin Transformer for cloud detection in the thermal infrared spectral range. Specifically, we augment the Swin Transformer's window attention module with a CNN-based parallel pathway to effectively model global-local information. We employ a feature fusion module before the final upsampling module in the decoder to better integrate low-level spatial information and high-level semantic information. On the Landsat-8 cloud detection dataset, our model outperforms state-of-the-art methods. When transferred to the SDGSAT-TIS cloud detection dataset, the mIOU of experiment results reaches 69.9%, demonstrating the strong transferability of SwinCloud across different sensors. We also applied SwinCloud to cloud detection in the visible bands of Landsat-8. The results demonstrated SwinCloud's generalization capability across different bands.

Mass-Producible Transparent Flexible Passive-Cooling Film.

Passive cooling is regarded as the desired method for interior temperature regulation due to its advantage of energy consumption reduction. An ideal passive-cooling window is expected to exhibit a high emissivity in the mid-infrared (MIR, 8-13 μm) spectral range for cooling and a low transmittance in the near-infrared (NIR, 780-2100 nm) spectral range for reducing heat flow, while presenting a high transmittance in the visible (VIS, 400-780 nm) spectral range for daylighting. However, material structures that meet these requirements often come with high demands for precision in manufacturing and elevated processing costs, which have limited their potential for large-scale mass production. Here, we propose a mass-producible transparent flexible passive-cooling film that is relatively easy to process and low-cost and meets all of the requirements mentioned above. The film is made of poly(methyl methacrylate) mixed with Cs0.33WO3 nanoparticles, and it shows a high absorptance (80%) in NIR for blocking solar radiation penetration and a high emissivity (93%) in MIR for radiative cooling as well as a reasonable transmittance (40%) in VIS for visibility. Under solar intensity of ∼900 W/m2, a maximum temperature reduction of 8.4 and 7.8 °C has been achieved for a window coated by the film compared to the uncoated window in the condition of the absorbing chamber and car, respectively. Such a mass-producible transparent flexible passive-cooling film holds promising applications in large windows, such as those used in automobiles and buildings, where there is a high demand for both daylighting and cooling.

Yb:YSAG ceramics: An attractive thin-disk laser material alternative to a single crystal?

The 8.3 at.% Yb-doped yttrium-scandium-aluminum garnet (YSAG) ceramics were fabricated by a modified reverse co-precipitation method followed by uniaxial and cold isostatic pressing, annealing in air and high-temperature sintering in vacuum. Spectroscopic and lasing properties were investigated in dependence on Y/Sc/Al ratio in ceramic composition. Optical transmission of Yb:YSAG ceramics in visible and near-infrared spectral range exceeds 80 % that indicates a high quality of the Yb:YSAG samples. Among all the ceramics, the Y2.35Yb0.25Sc1.00Al4.40O12 composition demonstrates the best lasing performance and the highest slope efficiency up to 75 %.

Enhancement of photoresponse for InGaAs infrared photodetectors using plasmonic WO3-x/CsyWO3-xnanocrystals.

Fast and accurate detection of light in the near-infrared (NIR) spectral range plays a crucial role in modern society, from alleviating speed and capacity bottlenecks in optical communications to enhancing the control and safety of autonomous vehicles through NIR imaging systems. Several technological platforms are currently under investigation to improve NIR photodetection, aiming to surpass the performance of established III-V semiconductor p-i-n (PIN) junction technology. These platforms include in situ-grown inorganic nanocrystals and nanowire arrays, as well as hybrid organic-inorganic materials such as graphene-perovskite heterostructures. However, challenges remain in nanocrystal and nanowire growth, large-area fabrication of high-quality 2D materials, and the fabrication of devices for practical applications. Here, we explore the potential for tailored semiconductor nanocrystals to enhance the responsivity of planar metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors. MSM technology offers ease of fabrication and fast response times compared to PIN detectors. We observe enhancement of the optical-to-electric conversion efficiency by up to a factor of ~2.5 through the application of plasmonically-active semiconductor nanorods and nanocrystals. We present a protocol for synthesizing and rapidly testing the performance of non-stoichiometric tungsten oxide (WO3-x) nanorods and cesium-doped tungsten oxide (CsyWO3-x) hexagonal nanoprisms prepared in colloidal suspensions and drop-cast onto photodetector surfaces. The results demonstrate the potential for a cost-effective and scalable method exploiting tailored nanocrystals to improve the performance of NIR optoelectronic devices.

Method for the determination of the luminance of two-photon vision stimuli.

Two-photon vision is a new and developing field in vision science. The phenomenon is based on visual perception of pulsed infrared lasers (800-1300 nm) due to the isomerization of visual pigments caused by two-photon absorption, with color perception corresponding to a wavelength about one-half of the stimulating wavelength in the near-infrared spectral range. Future applications of this effect, both in medical diagnostics and in virtual/augmented reality (VR/AR), require the ability to determine the luminance of the two-photon stimuli. However, the luminous efficiency function V(λ) outside of the visible range is unknown, requiring a non-standard approach to quantifying the luminance of two-photon stimuli. This study proposes a brightness adjustment method to determine the subjective luminance of two-photon infrared stimuli using photometric units. The repeatability of the proposed method with the background on was approximately equal to 407 td, more than twice as good as with the background off. In this report, we present the relationship between the luminance of two-photon stimuli and a physical quantity proposed for the first time: two-photon retinal illuminance. This relationship enables the prediction of stimulus luminance that could achieve nearly 670 cd/m2 within the safe range of laser power for the eye.

Destabilized near-infrared fluorescent nanobodies enable background-free targeting of GFP-based biosensors for imaging and manipulation

Near-infrared (NIR) probes are highly sought after as fluorescent tags for multicolor cellular and in vivo imaging. Here we develop small NIR fluorescent nanobodies, termed NIR-FbLAG16 and NIR-FbLAG30, enabling background-free visualization of various GFP-derived probes and biosensors. We also design a red-shifted variant, NIR-Fb(718), to simultaneously target several antigens within the NIR spectral range. Leveraging the antigen-stabilizing property of the developed NIR-Fbs, we then create two modular systems for precise control of gene expression in GFP-labeled cells. Applying the NIR-Fbs in vivo, we target cells expressing GFP and the calcium biosensor GCaMP6 in the somatosensory cortex of transgenic mice. Simultaneously tracking calcium activity and the reference signal from NIR-FbLAGs bound to GCaMP6 enables ratiometric deep-brain in vivo imaging. Altogether, NIR-FbLAGs present a promising approach for imaging and manipulating various processes in live cells and behaving animals expressing GFP-based probes.

Telecom-band multiwavelength vertical emitting quantum well nanowire laser arrays

Highly integrated optoelectronic and photonic systems underpin the development of next-generation advanced optical and quantum communication technologies, which require compact, multiwavelength laser sources at the telecom band. Here, we report on-substrate vertical emitting lasing from ordered InGaAs/InP multi-quantum well core–shell nanowire array epitaxially grown on InP substrate by selective area epitaxy. To reduce optical loss and tailor the cavity mode, a new nanowire facet engineering approach has been developed to achieve controlled quantum well nanowire dimensions with uniform morphology and high crystal quality. Owing to the strong quantum confinement effect of InGaAs quantum wells and the successful formation of a vertical Fabry–Pérot cavity between the top nanowire facet and bottom nanowire/SiO2 mask interface, stimulated emissions of the EH11a/b mode from single vertical nanowires from an on-substrate nanowire array have been demonstrated with a lasing threshold of ~28.2 μJ cm−2 per pulse and a high characteristic temperature of ~128 K. By fine-tuning the In composition of the quantum wells, room temperature, single-mode lasing is achieved in the vertical direction across a broad near-infrared spectral range, spanning from 940 nm to the telecommunication O and C bands. Our research indicates that through a carefully designed facet engineering strategy, highly ordered, uniform nanowire arrays with precise dimension control can be achieved to simultaneously deliver thousands of nanolasers with multiple wavelengths on the same substrate, paving a promising and scalable pathway towards future advanced optoelectronic and photonic systems.

Measurement of bidirectional transmittance distribution function in the visible and near-infrared spectral range

This work characterizes a facility for bidirectional transmittance distribution function (BTDF) measurements in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) wavelength range. The facility includes an absolute reference gonioreflectometer, with an extended capability for BTDF measurements, and a commercial instrument, Cary 7000, using a goniometer extension, Universal Measurement Accessory. The facility characterization includes measurements of two quasi-Lambertian diffusers for their BTDF. The diffuser samples include a piece of porous polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and a piece of fused synthetic silica, HOD-500. The samples are measured for their spectral BTDF in the wavelength range from 450 nm to 1650 nm in 50 nm steps, and in the viewing zenith angle range from −35° to 35° in 5° steps. Measurements are performed in-plane, using an incident zenith angle of 0°, while rotating the samples around their surface normal from 0° to 180° in 90° steps. Rotation of the sample serves the dual purpose of checking the sample rotational symmetry in azimuth angles and for averaging the measurement results. The characterization results show that both samples exhibit Lambertian characteristics across the visible and NIR wavelength range. Furthermore, both samples show a smooth increase in their spectral BTDF as a function of wavelength. Notably, the PTFE sample demonstrates a steeper slope in its spectral BTDF and a higher signal above 650 nm. The facility capability for measurements of spectral BTDF is validated by a rigorous uncertainty analysis and by comparing the difference in measurement results between the absolute gonioreflectometer and the commercial instrument. Characterization results indicate that the absolute reference gonioreflectometer has a standard uncertainty ranging from 0.29% to 0.42%, dependent on the BTDF measurement wavelength. Experimental results show that the devices of the facility deviate in their BTDF within their combined expanded uncertainty, affirming the capability and reliability of the facility for BTDF measurements.

Monitoring Mosquito Abundance: Comparing an Optical Sensor with a Trapping Method.

Optical sensors have shown significant promise in offering additional data to track insect populations. This article presents a comparative study between abundance measurements obtained from a novel near-infrared optical sensor and physical traps. The optical instrument, named an Entomological Bistatic Optical Sensor System, or eBoss, is a non-destructive sensor operating in the near-infrared spectral range and designed to continuously monitor the population of flying insects. The research compares the mosquito aerial density (#/m3) obtained through the eBoss with trap counts from eight physical traps during an eight-month field study. The eBoss recorded over 302,000 insect sightings and assessed the aerial density of all airborne insects as well as male and female mosquitoes specifically with a resolution of one minute. This capability allows for monitoring population trends throughout the season as well as daily activity peaks. The results affirmed the correlation between the two methods. While optical instruments do not match traps in terms of taxonomic accuracy, the eBoss offered greater temporal resolution (one minute versus roughly three days) and statistical significance owing to its much larger sample size. These outcomes further indicate that entomological optical sensors can provide valuable complementary data to more common methods to monitor flying insect populations, such as mosquitoes or pollinators.

Improving passive daytime radiative cooling via incorporation of composite nanoparticles into sheath of PU-PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film

Climate change has recently caused more severe temperatures, increasing demand for personal thermal management outdoors. Radiative cooling fabrics, known for their potent cooling ability, play a crucial role in regulating the thermal balance of the human body in high-temperature environments. In this study, an innovative PU (polyurethane)-SiO2/TiO2@PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) core-sheath nanofiber film was developed by incorporating SiO2/TiO2 composite nanoparticles (STNs) into the sheath of the nanofibers through coaxial electrospinning. The PU-STNs@PVDF composite nanofiber film with thickness of ∼100 μm achieved a reflectance of 92 % in the visible to near-infrared spectral range and an emittance of 91 % within the atmospheric transparent window. The temperature of the PU-STNs@PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film was reduced by 6.9 °C and 4.7 °C compared with that of the cotton fabric and PU-PVDF nanofiber film, respectively. Under direct solar radiation in summer, the temperature of the PU-STNs@PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film was 7.7 °C lower than that of cotton fabric. The PU-STNs@PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film elongated at a break of 127.5 % and a tensile strength of 4.3 MPa, implying it promising flexibility. The PU-STNs@PVDF core-sheath nanofiber film possesses huge potential in personal thermal management.

Sensorless adaptive optics in the second near-infrared window for deep vascular imaging in vivo.

We have experimentally validated the use of sensorless adaptive optics (AO) to enhance laser scanning confocal microscopy in the second near-infrared (NIR II) spectral range, termed as AO-NIR II confocal microscopy. This approach harnesses a NIR II fluorophore, excited by an 808 nm wavelength and emitting beyond 1000 nm, to visualize intricate structures in deep brain tissues with the intact skull. By leveraging the reduced scattering and aberrations in the NIR II spectrum, we successfully captured a three-dimensional (3D) vascular structure map extending 310 µm beneath the skull. AO typically boosts the fluorescence signal by approximately 2-3 times, leading to a superior contrast and diminished smearing effects. Consequently, small blood vessels at various depths can be clearly visualized, which might otherwise remain undetectable without AO corrections.

Devices and Methods for Dosimetry of Personalized Photodynamic Therapy of Tumors: A Review on Recent Trends.

Significance: Despite the widespread use of photodynamic therapy in clinical practice, there is a lack of personalized methods for assessing the sufficiency of photodynamic exposure on tumors, depending on tissue parameters that change during light irradiation. This can lead to different treatment results. Aim: The objective of this article was to conduct a comprehensive review of devices and methods employed for the implicit dosimetric monitoring of personalized photodynamic therapy for tumors. Methods: The review included 88 peer-reviewed research articles published between January 2010 and April 2024 that employed implicit monitoring methods, such as fluorescence imaging and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Additionally, it encompassed computer modeling methods that are most often and successfully used in preclinical and clinical practice to predict treatment outcomes. The Internet search engine Google Scholar and the Scopus database were used to search the literature for relevant articles. Results: The review analyzed and compared the results of 88 peer-reviewed research articles presenting various methods of implicit dosimetry during photodynamic therapy. The most prominent wavelengths for PDT are in the visible and near-infrared spectral range such as 405, 630, 660, and 690 nm. Conclusions: The problem of developing an accurate, reliable, and easily implemented dosimetry method for photodynamic therapy remains a current problem, since determining the effective light dose for a specific tumor is a decisive factor in achieving a positive treatment outcome.

Micro-optical elements from optical-quality ZIF-62 hybrid glasses by hot imprinting

Hybrid glasses derived from meltable metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) promise to combine the intriguing properties of MOFs with the universal processing ability of glasses. However, the shaping of hybrid glasses in their liquid state – in analogy to conventional glass processing – has been elusive thus far. Here, we present optical-quality glasses derived from the zeolitic imidazole framework ZIF-62 in the form of cm-scale objects. These allow for in-depth studies of optical transparency and refraction across the ultraviolet to near-infrared spectral range. Fundamental viscosity data are reported using a ball penetration technique, and subsequently employed to demonstrate the fabrication of micro-optical devices by thermal imprinting. Using 3D-printed fused silica templates, we show that concave as well as convex lens structures can be obtained at high precision by remelting the glass without trading-off on material quality. This enables multifunctional micro-optical devices combining the gas uptake and permeation ability of MOFs with the optical functionality of glass. As an example, we demonstrate the reversible change of optical refraction upon the incorporation of volatile guest molecules.

Development of Optical Nanosensors for Detection of Potassium Ions and Assessment of Their Biocompatibility with Corneal Epithelial Cells.

Imbalance of potassium-ion levels in the body can lead to physiological dysfunctions, which can adversely impact cardiovascular, neurological, and ocular health. Thus, quantitative measurement of potassium ions in a biological system is crucial for personal health monitoring. Nanomaterials can be used to aid in disease diagnosis and monitoring therapies. Optical detection technologies along with molecular probes emitting within the near-infrared (NIR) spectral range are advantageous for biological measurements due to minimal interference from light scattering and autofluorescence within this spectral window. Herein, we report the development of NIR fluorescent nanosensors, which can quantitatively detect potassium ions under biologically relevant conditions. The optical nanosensors were developed by using photoluminescent single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) encapsulated in polymers that contain potassium chelating moieties. The nanosensors, polystyrene sulfonate [PSS-SWCNTs, nanosensor 1 (NS1)] or polystyrene-co-polystyrene sulfonate [PS-co-PSS-SWCNTs, nanosensor 2 (NS2)], exhibited dose-dependent optical responses to potassium ion level. The nanosensors demonstrated their biocompatibility via the evaluation of cellular viability, proliferation assays, and expression of cytokeratin 12 in corneal epithelial cells (CEpiCs). Interestingly, the nanosensors' optical characteristics and their responses toward CEpiCs were influenced by encapsulating polymers. NS2 exhibited a 10 times higher fluorescence intensity along with a higher signal-to-noise ratio as compared to NS1. NS2 showed an optical response to potassium ion level in solution within 5 min of addition and a limit of detection of 0.39 mM. Thus, NS2 was used for detailed investigations including potassium ion level detection in serum. NS2 showed a consistent response to potassium ions at the lower millimolar range in serum. These results on optical sensing along with biocompatibility show a great potential for nanotube sensors in biomedical research.

A technique for detecting hydrogen and methane using refractive index sensitivity

Hydrogen and methane, as lightweight, high-energy fuels, occupy an important position in energy utilization and industrial production, and have broad application prospects. The safe extraction and production of new energy gases, as well as the safe utilization of hydrogen and methane is increasingly essential. The problem of detecting the type and concentration of hydrogen and methane is very important. This paper proposed a multi-peak high performance metamaterial refractive index sensor to fulfill the research gap for hydrogen or methane detection. We made unique designs on the patterns of the metasurface and made innovative combinations of materials. Through discussing different shapes and geometrical parameters, we get an optimal structure with a perfect absorption state, high sensitivity, and polarization independence. In the near-infrared spectral range spanning from 1700 nm to 2600 nm, resonance peaks were observed in the absorption spectrum at wavelengths of 1738.27 nm, 1843.17 nm, and 2368.13 nm. These peaks exhibited absorption rates respectively are 99.28 %, 89.71 %, and 99.69 %. The high sensitivity of the sensor under different environmental refractive indices was up to 715.43 nm/RIU. This leads to more precise and reliable identification of hydrogen and methane. The polarization dependence of our structure ensures consistent results under light illumination from various angles. This feature enhances the convenience of using it in both production and daily life, with fewer constraints and more accurate outcomes. The possible applications of this study lie in detecting the presence of hydrogen and methane gases, the exploration and extraction of new energy gases, as well as to monitoring and alarm systems for hydrogen and methane leaks. Moreover, it can serve as a validation system for the results of hydrogen and methane production processes. These applications are of significant importance for environmental protection and process safety.

Quantum dot-enabled infrared hyperspectral imaging with single-pixel detection.

Near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging is a powerful technique that enables the capture of three-dimensional (3D) spectra-spatial information within the NIR spectral range, offering a wide array of applications. However, the high cost associated with InGaAs focal plane array (FPA) has impeded the widespread adoption of NIR hyperspectral imaging. Addressing this challenge, in this study, we adopt an alternative approach-single-pixel detection for NIR hyperspectral imaging. Our investigation reveals that single-pixel detection outperforms conventional FPA, delivering a superior signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for both spectral and imaging reconstruction. To implement this strategy, we leverage self-assembled colloidal quantum dots (CQDs) and a digital micromirror device (DMD) for NIR spectral and spatial information multiplexing, complemented by single-pixel detection for simultaneous spectral and image reconstruction. Our experimental results demonstrate successful NIR hyperspectral imaging with a detection window about 600 nm and an average spectral resolution of 8.6 nm with a pixel resolution of 128 × 128. The resulting spectral and spatial data align well with reference instruments, which validates the effectiveness of our approach. By circumventing the need for expensive and bulky FPA and wavelength selection components, our solution shows promise in advancing affordable and accessible NIR hyperspectral imaging technologies, thereby expanding the range of potential applications.

Preparation, structure and spectral characteristics of Zinc tellurite glasses system doped with different concentrations of Tm3+

Gallium-tellurite glass is a new optical material with good transmittance in the infrared region up to 6.5[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]. Three different tellurate glasses were prepared: TeO2–ZnO–Ga2O3(TZG), TeO2–ZnO–La2O3(TZL) and TeO2–ZnO–B2O3(TZB). X-ray diffraction indicates that no crystal precipitates in the three glass systems, which maintain a stable glass state. Raman scattering experiments and fluorescence emission spectroscopy measurements were carried out on the tellulate glasses doped with the same concentration of Tm[Formula: see text]. It was found that the phonon energy of TZG(TeO2–ZnO–Ga2O3)-doped thulium glass is the lowest, and the emission light at 1380[Formula: see text]nm is the strongest with [Formula: see text][Formula: see text]nm fluorescence FWHM. These results show that Tm-doped TZG glass is a good luminescent material. Refractive indices were measured by the minimum deviation method. Sellmeier dispersion equation is obtained, which can be used to calculate the refractive index within visible and near-infrared spectral range. Furthermore, different Tm[Formula: see text] concentrations (0.4%, 0.8%, 1.2% and 2%) TZG glasses were prepared, the emission spectra and fluorescence lifetime were measured, and the emitted light was strongest when the thulium ion doping concentration is 1.2%. All the results suggest that these newly developed ternary tellurite glass systems are promising candidates for near/mid-infrared laser glass fibers, fiber amplifiers, or lasers.

Impact of Carbon-Based Nanoparticles on Polyvinyl Alcohol Polarizer Features: Photonics Applications.

Among different inorganic and organic polarizer elements, thin-film light polarizers occupy a special place because of their flexibility, ease of integration into any optoelectronic circuit, and good functioning in the visible and near-infrared spectral range and can compete with Glan and Nicolas volumetric prisms. This paper presents the results of a study on how carbon-based nanoparticles influence on the basic properties of a well-known PVA-based polymer matrix, using which it is possible to obtain good transparency for parallel light components. An accent is made on graphene oxide nanoparticles, which are used as PVA sensitizers. It was shown for the first time that the structuring of PVA with graphene oxides allows an increased transmittance of the parallel light component to be obtained, saving the transmittance of the orthogonal one. Moreover, the graphene network can increase the mechanical strength of such thin-film PVA-based polarizers and provoke a change in the wetting angle. These advantages make it possible to use graphene oxide-structured thin-film light polarizers based on a PVA matrix as an independent optoelectronic element. Some comparative results for polarizers based on PVA-C70 structures are shown as well.

The application of Raman spectroscopy for the diagnosis and monitoring of lung tumors.

Raman spectroscopy is an optical technique that uses inelastic light scattering in response to vibrating molecules to produce chemical fingerprints of tissues, cells, and biofluids. Raman spectroscopy strategies produce high levels of chemical specificity without requiring extensive sample preparation, allowing for the use of advanced optical tools such as microscopes, fiber optics, and lasers that operate in the visible and near-infrared spectral range, making them increasingly suitable for a wide range of medical diagnostic applications. Metal nanoparticles and nonlinear optical effects can improve Raman signals, and optimized fiber optic Raman probes can make real-time, in vivo, single-point observations. Furthermore, diagnostic speed and spatial accuracy can be improved through the multimodal integration of Raman measurements and other technologies. Recent studies have significantly contributed to the improvement of diagnostic speed and accuracy, making them suitable for clinical application. Lung cancer is a prevalent type of respiratory malignancy. However, the use of computed tomography for detection and screening frequently reveals numerous smaller lung nodules, which makes the diagnostic process more challenging from a clinical perspective. While the majority of small nodules detected are benign, there are currently no direct methods for identifying which nodules represent very early-stage lung cancer. Positron emission tomography and other auxiliary diagnostic methods for non-surgical biopsy samples from these small nodules yield low detection rates, which might result in significant expenses and the possibility of complications for patients. While certain subsets of patients can undergo curative treatment, other individuals have a less favorable prognosis and need alternative therapeutic interventions. With the emergence of new methods for treating cancer, such as immunotherapies, which can potentially extend patient survival and even lead to a complete cure in certain instances, it is crucial to determine the most suitable biomarkers and metrics for assessing the effectiveness of these novel compounds. This will ensure that significant treatment outcomes are accurately measured. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the prospects of Raman spectroscopy and its applications in the diagnosis and analysis of lung tumors.