Neanderthal Fossils Research Articles

Who Were the Chagyrskaya Neanderthals? The Possibility of Their Dispersal Across Central Asia and Southern Siberia

My article in the previous issue, based on findings of archaeological excavations of Paleolithic sites in the Altai, primarily in Denisova Cave, as well as facts concerning the time of origin of Neanderthal anatomy and genetics in Europe, challenged the view, based on the genetic analysis of the Altaian Neanderthals, that they had migrated to the Altai before 175 ka BP and occupied Denisova Cave by turns with Denisovans. In fact, the Neanderthal occupation of the Altai began apparently no earlier than 60 ka BP. Thus far, Neanderthal fossils with a Micoquian Mousteroid industry have been found in three caves: Chagyrskaya, Okladnikov, and Strashnaya. This group of Neanderthals, evidencing the easternmost dispersal wave of those humans in Asia, was termed the Chagyrskaya group.

Raising the Neanderthal (molecules) from the dead: a proposal for in vivo resurrection of Neanderthal haemoglobin for the investigation of biochemical adaptations for cold tolerance

Since the first discoveries of Neanderthal fossils, their derived characteristics, such as increased robusticity, have engaged researchers. Adaptation to cold environments has been hypothesised to explain such traits and this hypothesis has driven the majority of discourse. This proposal seeks to examine this hypothesis and locate evidence of Neanderthals being physiologically adapted to cold at the biomolecular level. Haemoglobin is a biomolecule that has been previously demonstrated to adapt to cold in some species, driven by the inhibition of the protein’s function by low temperatures. Neanderthal haemoglobin is extinct; however, using pre-sequenced genomic data, I propose to resurrect Neanderthal haemoglobin so I can examine the consequences of lowered temperature on its function. This project could potentially detect signs of cold adaptation in the Neanderthal globin genes and provide empirical evidence for the cold adaptation hypothesis.

Living fossils unearthed by blasting human chromosomes with Neanderthal mtDNA

The successful retrieval of ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from Neanderthals provides powerful experimental evidence that clarifies the arguments between the out-of-Africa and multiregional models of evolution. However, the lack of nuclear DNA from Neanderthal fossils and mtDNA of early modern human fossils dating back to approximately the same time in the Pleistocene constitutes a limitation that may compromise the significance of mtDNA phylogenetic analysis. In this report, we introduce a mitochromic analysis using Neanderthal mtDNA as a foreign transgene and humans as a naturally occurring transgenic species. Forty Neanderthal mtDNA retrievable nuclear fragments were identified by blasting human genome data with Neanderthal mtDNA. Five of the 40 fragments exhibited higher correlation with Neanderthal mtDNA than those with modern human mtDNA. Furthermore, these five nuclear fragments harbor Neanderthal mtDNA-unique haplotypes. Based on the 98%+ identity between Neanderthal and modern human mtDNA when compared by groups, we suggest that some of the modern human nuclear fragments retrieved using Neanderthal mtDNA may aid in decoding Neanderthal genetic information, and also may simultaneously demonstrate a close genetic evolutionary relationship between modern humans and Neanderthals.

Reappraisal of the chronology of Orgnac 3 Lower-to-Middle Paleolithic site (Ardèche, France), a regional key sequence for the Middle Pleistocene of southern France

Previous studies have suggested that the Lower-to-Middle Paleolithic transition was associated with the earliest Neanderthals, but recent research has established that the oldest Neanderthal fossils and the first signs of their technologies and behavior appear from MIS 11 or possibly earlier. To understand these changes, re-evaluation of the evidence is necessary to determine if this transition corresponds to a progressive evolution rather than abrupt change. Orgnac 3 is a key and appropriate site to study this research context. Located in southern France, it yields a long stratigraphic sequence testifying the evolution of technical and subsistence behaviors of pre-Neanderthal human groups during a Middle Pleistocene interglacial-glacial cycle. In this article, a new chronological framework is provided for the sequence based on results of dating methods applied to various types of geological materials. Speleothems and volcanic minerals, dated in previous studies by U-series and 40Ar/39Ar, respectively, show periods of calcitic crystallization and regional volcanic activity. Other materials, such as heated flints and herbivore teeth, are directly related to evidence of anthropogenic activities and are analyzed in the present work by trapped-charge dating methods such as thermoluminescence and electron spin resonance combined with uranium series (ESR/U-series). The new thermoluminescence and ESR/U-series dates confirm the attribution of the Orgnac 3 stratigraphic sequence to the MIS 10–MIS 8 period and are discussed in relation to paleoenvironmental data derived from bioarchaeological studies. The paleoanthropological levels, including the emergence of Levallois technology, are dated to ca. 275 ka (early MIS 8) and appear coeval to a wet and temperate period recorded locally, the Amargiers interstadial, defined in the regional palynological records. The implications of this reassessed chronology for the archaeological assemblages are discussed in the wider context of behavioral innovations from MIS 11 onward and their establishment in subsequent periods.

A new chronological framework and site formation history for Cova del Gegant (Barcelona): Implications for Neanderthal and Anatomically Modern Human occupation of NE Iberian Peninsula

The chronological framework for Neanderthal occupation and demise across Europe continues to be debated. In particular, there is still uncertainty regarding the nature, timing and regional expressions of the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition associated with the disappearance of Neanderthals and the broader expansion of modern human populations in Europe around 42–40 thousand years ago (ka). The geographical and chronological distribution of Neanderthal populations also remains difficult to evaluate owing to the practical challenges of directly dating human fossils at many sites, and the fact that a large proportion of Neanderthals sites lie close to, or well-beyond, the limits of radiocarbon dating. Cova del Gegant – one of the few sites in north-eastern Iberian Peninsula to yield Neanderthal fossil remains, associated Mousterian archaeological layers, and occupations related to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic transition – is a key locality for informing these ongoing debates. Here we provide a comprehensive chronological framework for the Cova del Gegant site using multiple radiometric dating techniques (uranium-thorium (U–Th), radiocarbon and luminescence dating), sedimentological and micromorphological analyses, and Bayesian modelling. This integrated chronostratigraphic approach enables us to reliably reconstruct site formation processes and history, and undertake improved correlations with other sites regionally. The results allow us to sub-divide the Cova del Gegant sequence into three sections spanning ∼94 ka to ∼32 ka, namely: a Middle Palaeolithic sequence covering ∼94–59 ka, a Châtelperronian/Aurignacian section spanning ∼43–39 ka, and a Late Aurignacian/Gravettian section spanning ∼34–32 ka. The Neanderthal fossil remains accumulated in the cave between the end of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5/MIS 4 and the beginning of MIS 3, during two different events dated to ∼72–67 ka and ∼60–52 ka. The chronological framework for Cova del Gegant is in accordance with that reported for other Middle and Upper Palaeolithic sites in north-eastern Iberian Peninsula, and reveals a record of successive human occupation coinciding with a period of progressive global cooling and lowering sea levels (end of MIS 5 through to MIS 2). Sedimentological evidence points to the emergence of a coastal platform in front of the cave and indicates that local palaeoenvironmental conditions likely benefited human displacements along the littoral margin, and favoured repeated occupation of the cave during the Late Pleistocene.

The Negative Impact of the Hominin’s DPP4 Gene Inherited from Neanderthals to Pandemic of COVID-19

Background: According to preliminary sequences from 2010, 99.7% of the nucleotide sequences of the modern human and Neanderthal genomes are identical, compared to humans sharing around 98.8% of sequences with the chimpanzee. In contrast, the difference between chimpanzees and modern humans is approximately 1,462 mtDNA base pairs. Materials and Methods: Neanderthal-inherited genetic material is found in all non-African populations and was initially reported to comprise 1 to 4 percent of the genome. This fraction was later refined to 1.5 to 2.1 percent. We had gone through many researches of Neanderthals affected gene flow in humans. Results: It is estimated that 20 percent of Neanderthal DNA currently survives in modern humans. Modern human genes involved in making keratin, a protein constituent of skin, hair, and nails, have especially high levels of introgression. For example, approximately 66% of East Asians contain a POUF23L variant introgressed from Neanderthals, while 70% of Europeans possess an introgressed allele of BNC2. Our finding shines a light on an enzyme called dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4). Scientists already know the protein allows another coronavirus, which causes Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS), to bind to and enter human cells. The new analysis, of DPP4 gene variants among COVID-19 patients, suggests the enzyme also provides SARS-CoV-2 with a second door into our cells, along with its usual infection route via the angiotensinconverting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor on cell surfaces. Conclusion: Most Europeans, Asians, and Native Americans harbor a handful of genes from Neanderthals, up 1.8% to 2.6% of their DNA. Studies of ancient DNA in Neanderthal fossils have shown the hominin’s DPP4 gene subtly differs from the typical human one. Conclusion: The hominin’s DPP4 gene inherited from Neanderthals plays a major role in Immune System Disorders and Lower Immune response in many diseases. This gene plays a major role in affecting humans with COVID-19 and spreading it through the world. All humans contain this gene from 1 to 4 percent. East Asians, Europeans, Middle and South Americans conveys more, hence; native Africans contain less amounts of hominin’s DPP4 gene. Therefore; East Asians, Europeans, Middle and South Americans are prone to severe COVID-19.

El ocre que vino del cielo

Al igual que nuestra sociedad contemporánea busca en determinados comportamientos de los animales caminos para la empatía interespecies, en el origen de nuestro pensamiento simbólico hubo estrategias empáticas hacia los demás seres con los que compartíamos hábitat, comportamientos que, por apropiación mimética, son el inicio de nuestro pensamiento místico y de las manifestaciones estéticas asociadas a él. Analizando el comportamiento cosmético del quebrantahuesos (Gypaetus barbatus) y el registro fósil neandertal y el del inicio de la colonización de Europa por el sapiens, donde aparecen los primeros instrumentos musicales del continente, presentamos algunas de esas estrategias en el origen de la conciencia simbólica en relación con el sueño arquetípico de vuelo y con la observación de aves.

The first Neanderthal specimen from Serbia: Maxillary first molar from the Late Pleistocene of Pešturina Cave

Neanderthals were the only human group in Europe throughout the Late Pleistocene until the arrival of modern humans, and while their presence has been confirmed in the surrounding regions, no Neanderthal fossils are known to date from the Central Balkans. Systematic excavations of Pešturina Cave (Serbia) resulted in the discovery of a permanent right M1 (Pes-3). The specimen was recovered from stratigraphic Layer 4b with an estimated age of 102.4 ± 3.2 ka, associated with Mousterian artifacts. The exceptional state of preservation and minimal wear of the molar enabled a detailed description and comparative analysis of the inner and outer dental structure, including non-metric dental traits and morphometric features of the crown, roots, and dental tissues. The results of this study strongly support the identification of Pes-3 as Neanderthal. Non-metric traits of the occlusal surface of the crown, enamel-dentine junction, and roots are consistent with Neanderthal morphology. The crown shows morphometric features typical for Neanderthal M1, such as a buccolingually skewed crown shape, internally compressed cusps, and a relatively large hypocone. The specimen also shows Neanderthal-like dental tissue proportions, characterized by relatively thin enamel and large coronal dentine and coronal pulp volumes. The discovery of the Pes-3 molar therefore confirms the presence of Neanderthals in the territory of Serbia and the Central Balkans at the end of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5c.

Virtual reconstruction and re-evaluation of the Neanderthal frontal bone from Carigüela Cave (Granada, Spain)

During several consecutive excavations from the 1950s to the 1990s the cave of Carigüela de Píñar (Granada, Baetic System, Southeast of the Iberian Peninsula) has yielded an important sample of Neanderthal fossils. Among these finds is a fragmentary frontal bone of an immature individual (CE-05877), which was described earlier. Here we present a new virtual reconstruction and a quantitative analysis of its three-dimensional morphology. Geometric morphometric analyses show that the Carigüela frontal falls within the range of shape variation of 6–7 year-old Neanderthals, and clearly outside the range of variation exhibited by same-age modern humans. Compared to other Neanderthals of similar age, Carigüela has a relatively wide nasal bridge and low frontal profile. Re-analysis of the fossil's endocranial imprints in the light of cerebral sulcal variability in modern humans indicates that only a reduced number of brain sulci can be identified reliably. Overall, the Carigüela fossil provides further support for the view that Neanderthals and modern humans exhibit distinct frontal bone morphologies, while their cerebral frontal lobes exhibit largely similar but highly variable sulcal patterns.

ESR/U-series chronology of early Neanderthal occupations at Cova Negra (Valencia, Spain)

The spatiotemporal repartition of Neanderthal populations throughout the late Middle and early Upper Pleistocene is of great interest for our understanding of human evolution. Establishing a reliable chronology for human-bearing layers from prehistoric sites is thus essential for the study of Neanderthal population dynamics prior to modern human arrival in Europe. Cova Negra (Valencia, Spain) is one of the richest sites documenting Neanderthal fossil bones in the Iberian Peninsula (Arsuaga et al., 1989, 2007; Villaverde et al., 2014). The stratigraphic sequence includes 15 Middle Palaeolithic layers. Among them, four were dated by the ESR/U-series dating method on enamel from six herbivore fossil teeth. Equivalent doses were obtained using the additive dose method on multi-aliquots. U-content, 234U/238U and 230Th/234U isotopic ratios were measured using ICP-QMS. Results indicate that dental tissues from two out of six analysed teeth underwent U leaching during burial. Thus, it does not allow the calculation of US-ESR (U-series-ESR, Grün et al., 1988) ages for these samples. However, ages calculated using AU model (Accelerating Uptake, Shao et al., 2012) are discussed together with biochronological data and previous absolute ages obtained for the archaeological sequence. Age results indicate that Neanderthals occupied Cova Negra during MIS 8 to 6, between 273 ± 26 ka and 146 ± 34 ka. These results suggest that human occupation took place at the end of the Middle Pleistocene, and hence it is older than proposed by previous TL ages obtained on sediments (Arsuaga et al., 2007). By contrast, our ESR/U-Th ages suggest that Neanderthals were present in the cave 100 ka earlier than initially proposed, in agreement with TL ages obtained on burnt flint (Villaverde et al., 2014). This implies that the Cova Negra human specimens could represent one the earliest occurrences of Neanderthal presence in the Iberian Peninsula.

Man and his Ancestors – The Legacy and Fate of Neanderthal Man

First discovered in lime quarries in the Neander Valley near Dusselorf, Germany, in 1856, Neanderthal Man ( Homo neanderthalensis ) was the first modern hominid species to be named. Since the discovery of the original fossil (subsequently named as Neander 1), numerous Neanderthal fossils, varying from sets of teeth to virtually complete skeletons, have been discovered at numerous European and Central Asian sites, including La Chapelle-aux-Saints and Moustier (France) and Shanidar (Kurdistan).

The easternmost Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) from Jinsitai Cave, North China

The dispersal of Neanderthals and their genetic and cultural interactions with anatomically modern humans and other hominin populations in Eurasia are critical issues in human evolution research. Neither Neanderthal fossils nor typical Mousterian assemblages have been reported in East Asia to date. Here we report on artifact assemblages comparable to western Eurasian Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) at Jinsitai, a cave site in North China. The lithic industry at Jinsitai appeared at least 47–42 ka and persisted until around 40–37 ka. These findings expand the geographic range of the Mousterian-like industries at least 2000 km further to the east than what has been previously recognized. This discovery supplies a missing part of the picture of Middle Paleolithic distribution in Eurasia and also demonstrates the makers' capacity to adapt to diverse geographic regions and habitats of Eurasia.

Hunted or Scavenged Neanderthals? Taphonomic Approach to Hominin Fossils with Carnivore Damage

AbstractCarnivore damage on Neanderthal fossils is a much more common taphonomic modification than previously thought. Its presence could have different explanations, including predatory attacks or scavenging scenarios, which are both situations with important implications concerning Neanderthal behaviour. In the present paper, we analyse several Neanderthal hominin fossils from a taphonomic and forensic perspective in order to infer the nature of the modifications observed on the bone surfaces. Fossils displaying carnivore modifications from Spain, Germany, Belgium and Greece are evaluated from a taphonomic perspective for the first time in a significant sample of hominin specimens. Our results show that the materials analysed have been modified by small to large carnivores and that both attacks and strictly carnivore scavenging events can be inferred. This study also points out the importance of developing taphonomic approaches to the analysis of hominin bone surfaces, which can contribute significantly to knowledge of several aspects of Neanderthal behaviour. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The endostructural pattern of a middle pleistocene human femoral diaphysis from the Karain E site (Southern Anatolia, Turkey).

The human femur from Karain E Cave (Turkey) exhumed from a Mousterian level provided the opportunity to make an incursion into the structural morphology of a late adolescent, or a young adult, femoral shaft from the late Middle Pleistocene of Anatolia. Considering the chrono-ecogeographical context, this study focuses particularly on the endostructural morphological similarities between Karain and Neanderthal fossils. Comparative analysis shows that some femoral features of the Karain specimen are frequently observed in Neanderthals, in comparison to some Middle Pleistocene Homo and Middle/Upper Paleolithic modern humans. In particular, we note a high degree of circularity and a strong midshaft posteromedial reinforcement of cortical thickness on the medial side. According to the mapping of cortical thickness, this latter feature can be related to the medial spiral distribution pattern of cortical thickness in the mid-proximal shaft, which is present at Karain and in all Neanderthals available for this study. This spiral distribution was not identified in recent modern humans and may be absent from ancient Homo with femoral pilaster. The endostructural signature of Karain could indicate a similar biomechanical strain system to that of Neanderthals that could be linked to body shape. However, the presence of posteromedial reinforcement in Berg Aukas may point to an ancestral feature and may be independent of latitude. A larger comparative sample should further clarify the taxonomical, biomechanical, and chrono-ecogeographical origins of the structural femoral features observed in an evolutionary Neanderthal context from MIS 7-9 in Karain.

Middle Palaeolithic point technology, with a focus on the site of Tor Faraj (Jordan, MIS 3)

The manufacture of small and standardised lithic points has been emphasised in debates on modern human origins. Points, produced by striking specifically shaped core surfaces (debitage) and/or by retouching flakes, are iconic artefacts of the Middle Palaeolithic. The study of point variation brings together many themes, including debates on function, on the technology of lithic reduction, standardisation and even on putatively ‘symbolic’ aspects. This paper considers in detail the character of point morphology and production at the ∼60–50 ka site of Tor Faraj, Jordan. It does so both to consider point technology at this well preserved and excavated southwest Asian site, which has been suggested to represent one of the most southern limits of Neanderthal dispersal, but also as a case study with which to consider wider themes of point variability in time and space. Much recent discussion has focussed on dichotomising precocious points made by ‘modern’ humans, perhaps leading to their global dispersal, in contrast to purportedly inferior analogues made by ‘archaic’ hominins. This dichotomy is frequently seen in terms of a distinction between projectile and thrusting technology, on the assumption that the normative function of points was as weapon tips, and that there is a clear link between size and function. Many Late Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in the Levant, which are exclusively associated with Neanderthal fossils, reflect an emphasis on the production of points by debitage methods. Here, the standardised nature of point production at Tor Faraj is described. Further insights into point technology require the development of technological and quantitative, rather than typological, analyses and the transcendence of simplistic interpretative dichotomies.

Terra incognita: The Palaeolithic record of northwest Europe and the information potential of the southern North Sea

AbstractFor major parts of the Palaeolithic substantial areas of the current southern North Sea and what later became the English Channel were dry land. Those areas, now covered by tens of metres of sea, were occasionally core areas for large herds of herbivores and the animals that preyed upon them, including Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers. This is demonstrated by the large amounts of Pleistocene mammal fossils, artefacts and a Neanderthal fossil recovered during the last one and a half centuries. Any consideration of the Pleistocene occupation history of northwest Europe needs to deal with the fact that a major part of the landscape available to Pleistocene hunter-gatherers is currently submerged under the waters of the North Sea, one of the most prolific Pleistocene fossil-bearing localities world-wide. One also needs to take into account the complex landscape evolution of the southern North Sea basin, with geographically varying successions of marine, lacustrine, fluvial and glacial sedimentation and erosion. This paper gives a short overview of the occupation history of northwest Europe, from its earliest traces at the very end of the Lower and the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene up to the middle part of the Upper Palaeolithic, when this part of Europe became deserted for a period of about 10,000 years. Tentative interpretations and questions raised by the overview will be situated in the context of the information potential of the deposits in the southern North Sea and the Channel area.

Late Neanderthal occupation in North‐West Europe: rediscovery, investigation and dating of a last glacial sediment sequence at the site of La Cotte de Saint Brelade, Jersey

ABSTRACTIn 2011, a programme of field research was undertaken to effect the stabilization of an unstable section in the West Ravine at the key Neanderthal occupation site of La Cotte de St Brelade on the Channel Island of Jersey. As part of this essential remedial work the threatened section was analysed to characterize its archaeological and palaeoenvironmental potential as well provide optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates. The work determined, through two concordant OSL dating programmes, that the section formed part of an extensive sequence of sedimentation spanning >105 to <48 ka. Furthermore, reanalysis of the archive determined that the sediment sequence examined contained the stratigraphic equivalent of deposits lying below those that have previously produced Neanderthal fossils. Through our work, we can now constrain these younger sediments to being younger than 48 ka. The combined results suggest that this sequence now represents the recovery of an extensive dataset, thought lost to science through complete excavation, which holds the potential to throw light on the disappearance of Neanderthal populations from the Atlantic‐edge outpost on the north‐west frontier of their world.

Neanderthal teeth from moula‐guercy, Ardèche, France

Here we describe dental remains from a Neanderthal fossil assemblage from Moula-Guercy, France. Our report demonstrates that the Moula-Guercy hominid remains contribute important morphological, developmental, and behavioral data to understanding Neanderthal evolutionary history. We include gross comparative morphological descriptions and enamel surface microstructure and microwear data. These teeth reveal numerous characteristics that are diagnostic of Neanderthals and provide no evidence for the presence of any other hominid taxa. Enamel growth increment data from the Moula-Guercy specimens yield evidence of a Neanderthal pattern of development, although at the lower end of the range of variation. The presence of a significant number of linear enamel hypoplasias indicates that these individuals were stressed during childhood. Molar microwear data suggest that these Neanderthals did not differ significantly from modern humans in terms of the fracture properties of the food they were consuming. The incisor microwear and macro striations provide evidence that these individuals may have been using their anterior teeth as tools, similar to the practices of several modern human populations such as the Inuit, Ipiutak, and Australian Aboriginals, and reminiscent of evidence from other Neanderthals from Krapina, Croatia, as well as the 600,000 year old hominids from Sima de los Huesos, Spain. Am J Phys Anthropol 151:477-491, 2013.© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

No Ancient DNA Damage in Actinobacteria from the Neanderthal Bone

BackgroundThe Neanderthal genome was recently sequenced using DNA extracted from a 38,000-year-old fossil. At the start of the project, the fraction of mammalian and bacterial DNA in the sample was estimated to be <6% and 9%, respectively. Treatment with restriction enzymes prior to sequencing increased the relative proportion of mammalian DNA to 15%, but the large majority of sequences remain uncharacterized.Principal FindingsOur taxonomic profiling of 3.95 Gb of Neanderthal DNA isolated from the Vindija Neanderthal Vi33.16 fossil showed that 90% of about 50,000 rRNA gene sequence reads were of bacterial origin, of which Actinobacteria accounted for more than 75%. Actinobacteria also represented more than 80% of the PCR-amplified 16S rRNA gene sequences from a cave sediment sample taken from the same G layer as the Neanderthal bone. However, phylogenetic analyses did not identify any sediment clones that were closely related to the bone-derived sequences. We analysed the patterns of nucleotide differences in the individual sequence reads compared to the assembled consensus sequences of the rRNA gene sequences. The typical ancient nucleotide substitution pattern with a majority of C to T changes indicative of DNA damage was observed for the Neanderthal rRNA gene sequences, but not for the Streptomyces-like rRNA gene sequences.Conclusions/SignificanceOur analyses suggest that the Actinobacteria, and especially members of the Streptomycetales, contribute the majority of sequences in the DNA extracted from the Neanderthal fossil Vi33.16. The bacterial DNA showed no signs of damage, and we hypothesize that it was derived from bacteria that have been enriched inside the bone. The bioinformatic approach used here paves the way for future studies of microbial compositions and patterns of DNA damage in bacteria from archaeological bones. Such studies can help identify targeted measures to increase the relative amount of endogenous DNA in the sample.

Undrowning a lost world — The Marine Isotope Stage 3 landscape of Gibraltar

The Rock of Gibraltar, at the south-western extreme of the Iberian Peninsula and 21km from the North African coast, is a 6-km long limestone peninsula which was inhabited by Neanderthals from MIS 5e until the end of MIS 3. A total of 8 sites, either with Neanderthal fossils or their Mousterian lithic technology, have been discovered on the Rock. Two, Gorham's and Vanguard Caves, are the subject of ongoing research. These caves are currently at sea level, but during MIS 3 faced an emerged coastal shelf with the shoreline as far as 5km away at times. They hold a unique archive of fauna and flora, in the form of fossils, charcoal and pollen, helping environmental reconstruction of now-submerged shelf landscapes. In addition, geological and geomorphological features — a 300-metre dune complex, elevated aeolian deposits, raised beaches, scree, speleothems — complement the biotic picture.The work is further complemented by a study of the ecology of the species recorded at the site, using present-day observations. The species composition in this fossil record closely matches the present day fauna and vegetation of the Doñana National Park, SW Spain: a mosaic of pine groves, coastal dunes, shrubland and seasonal wetlands and currently the richest reserve in terms of biodiversity in the Iberian Peninsula, located only 100km to the northwest from Gibraltar.All this information permits, for the first time, the quantification of the vegetation structure of the ancient coastal plain and the modelling of the spatio-temporal dynamics of the MIS 3 coastal shelf off Gibraltar.