Naval Dosimetry Center Research Articles

United States Navy nuclear accident dosimetry program: History and Current Status

Federal Regulations of the United States require that installations possessing sufficient quantities of fissile material to potentially constitute a critical mass, such that the excessive exposure of individuals to radiation from a nuclear accident is possible, shall provide appropriate nuclear accident dosimetry. The American National Standard ANSl/HPS N13.3–2013 Dosimetry for Criticality Accidents provides technical, quality assurance, and performance requirements for nuclear accident dosimeters (NAD). In 2023 the U.S. Navy operated 82 nuclear-powered ships, with the fleet being composed of 11 aircraft carriers, 68 submarines, having a total number of 98 reactors. Since 1968 the U.S. Navy has used fixed nuclear accident dosimeters (FNAD) mounted to the bulkheads surrounding naval nuclear propulsion reactors. Since 1968 the US Navy has used two nuclear accident criticality dosimeters. The first Navy accident dosimeter DT-518/PD was introduced in 1968. It was developed by the Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory in San Francisco, California under leadership of Eugene Tochilin. This dosimeter contains two indium foils for quick dose assessments using shipboard gamma instruments available on nuclear powered vessels and two sulfur pellets/LiF TLD-700 powder for final dose determination at the Naval Dosimetry Center. The newest Navy NAD is the DT-723/PD, which contains indium foil, gold foil, cadmium shielded gold foil, sulfur pellet and a LiF TLD-700 chip. This paper provides a brief description of the measurement procedures, results of the testing of both NADs and comparison of their performance.

Effect of Teflon Transmittance on Sensitivity of Thermoluminescence Dosimeter Cards.

Thermoluminescence dosimeter cards purchased by the US Navy in recent years have different radiation sensitivities, e.g., they exhibit a different amount of light per dose unit. Presented tests indicate that the optical transparency of the Teflon encapsulation is partially responsible for the significant variation of the DT-702/PD radiation sensitivity. It was confirmed also that the Teflon transparency is in fact a primary cause of the radiation sensitivity increase in the most recently produced dosimetric cards. This conclusion is based on the correlation found between the calibrated radiation sensitivity of the dosimeter card element and the optical transparency of its Teflon encapsulation. The transparency measurements were performed at the wavelength of 400 nm within a 10 nm spectral interval effectively covering the spectral range of the thermoluminescence. It is anticipated that the experimentally determined correlation will help to approve the acceptance of new thermoluminescence dosimeter cards in the Naval Dosimetry Center inventory as well as improve the production process.

Acceptance Testing of Thermoluminescent Dosimeter Holders.

The U.S. Navy uses the Harshaw 8840/8841 dosimetric (DT-702/PD) system, which employs LiF:Mg,Cu,P thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), developed and produced by Thermo Fisher Scientific (TFS). The dosimeter consists of four LiF:Mg,Cu,P elements, mounted in Teflon® on an aluminum card and placed in a plastic holder. The holder contains a unique filter for each chip made of copper, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), Mylar®, and tin. For accredited dosimetry labs, the ISO/IEC 17025:2005(E) requires an acceptance procedure for all new equipment. The Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC) has developed and tested a new non-destructive procedure, which enables the verification and the evaluation of embedded filters in the holders. Testing is based on attenuation measurements of low-energy radiation transmitted through each filter in a representative sample group of holders to verify that the correct filter type and thickness are present. The measured response ratios are then compared with the expected response ratios. In addition, each element's measured response is compared to the mean response of the group. The test was designed and tested to identify significant nonconformities, such as missing copper or tin filters, double copper or double tin filters, or other nonconformities that may impact TLD response ratios. During the implementation of the developed procedure, testing revealed a holder with a double copper filter. To complete the evaluation, the impact of the nonconformities on proficiency testing was examined. The evaluation revealed failures in proficiency testing categories III and IV when these dosimeters were irradiated to high-energy betas.

Performance evolution of TLD-700H/600H dosimetry system at extended issue periods

Results of a comprehensive study of the TLD-700H/600H (Harshaw 8840/8841) dosimetry system performance for an extended issue period are presented and discussed. The results provide a technical justification to use the current dosimetry system issues periods up to almost 600 days, far beyond the current 95-day issue period used at the Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC). Extending (or reducing) the issue period has a statistically significant effect on the uncertainty of the dose equivalent values measured within the dosimetry system. In order to accommodate the use of various issue periods for the dosimetry system, the lower limit of detection (LLD) linear model is proposed. A possible limitation of this model (dose fading) is discussed. The factors responsible for both time independent and dependent LLD components are identified. The thermoluminescent residual signal and dosimetry system calibration are responsible for the time-independent LLD component; whereas the factors for time-dependent LLD component are dose fading, radiation background and its standard deviation. Simple formulae for photon and neutron LLDs at variable dosimeter issue periods are proposed. As a result of the experimental study conducted, multiple LLD components were numerically evaluated for the four-element TLD-700H/600H dosimetry system at different issue periods. Implementation of these formulae in the Dose Program may provide a more accurate LLD estimation for each reported dose equivalent at any technically justified dosimeter issue period.

U.S. Department of Defense Multiple-Parameter Biodosimetry Network.

The U.S. Department of Defense (USDOD) service members are at risk of exposure to ionizing radiation due to radiation accidents, terrorist attacks and national defense activities. The use of biodosimetry is a standard of care for the triage and treatment of radiation injuries. Resources and procedures need to be established to implement a multiple-parameter biodosimetry system coupled with expert medial guidance to provide an integrated radiation diagnostic system to meet USDOD requirements. Current USDOD biodosimetry capabilities were identified and recommendations to fill the identified gaps are provided. A USDOD Multi-parametric Biodosimetry Network, based on the expertise that resides at the Armed Forces Radiobiology Research Institute and the Naval Dosimetry Center, was designed. This network based on the use of multiple biodosimetry modalities would provide diagnostic and triage capabilities needed to meet USDOD requirements. These are not available with sufficient capacity elsewhere but could be needed urgently after a major radiological/nuclear event.

Performance comparison of OSLD (Al2O3:C) and TLD (LiF:Mg,Cu,P) in accreditation proficiency testing

The U.S. Navy uses a dosimetric system, which employs the LiF:Mg,Cu,P thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs), developed and produced by Thermo Fisher Scientific. Every two years, the Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC) performs proficiency testing to maintain its national accreditation. Since 2007, the U.S. Navy has also tested InLight Basic - OSLN Optically Stimulated Luminescence Al2O3:C dosimeters (OSLD) manufactured by Landauer. In 2011 and 2013, the Naval Dosimetry Center performed proficiency testing for both systems. Here we present a comparison of the performance of TLDs (LiF:Mg,Cu,P) and OSLDs (Al2O3:C) in five categories of proficiency testing. The testing included irradiation with photons, neutrons, beta particles and selected mixtures of these radiations. All irradiations were performed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL). The delivered doses were not reported to the NDC. The official comparison of delivered and reported doses was conducted by PNNL in terms of dose bias and its standard deviation for each category of accreditation. In total, the NDC reported to the PNNL doses for 147 dosimeters of each type (TLD and OSLD). Both NDC tested dosimetric systems have passed established limits. The comparison of OSLD and TLD system performance in each category is discussed. Advantages and disadvantages of both systems are analyzed.

Electron paramagnetic resonance radiation dose assessment in fingernails of the victim exposed to high dose as result of an accident.

In this paper, we report results of radiation dose measurements in fingernails of a worker who sustained a radiation injury to his right thumb while using 130 kVp X-ray for nondestructive testing. Clinically estimated absorbed dose was about 20-25 Gy. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) dose assessment was independently carried out by two laboratories, the Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC) and French Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire (IRSN). The laboratories used different equipments and protocols to estimate doses in the same fingernail samples. NDC used an X-band transportable EPR spectrometer, e-scan produced by Bruker BioSpin, and a universal dose calibration curve. In contrast, IRSN used a more sensitive Q-band stationary spectrometer (EMXplus) with a new approach for the dose assessment (dose saturation method), derived by additional dose irradiation to known doses. The protocol used by NDC is significantly faster than that used by IRSN, nondestructive, and could be done in field conditions, but it is probably less accurate and requires more sample for the measurements. The IRSN protocol, on the other hand, potentially is more accurate and requires very small amount of sample but requires more time and labor. In both EPR laboratories, the intense radiation-induced signal was measured in the accidentally irradiated fingernails and the resulting dose assessments were different. The dose on the fingernails from the right thumb was estimated as 14 ± 3 Gy at NDC and as 19 ± 6 Gy at IRSN. Both EPR dose assessments are given in terms of tissue kerma. This paper discusses the experience gained by using EPR for dose assessment in fingernails with a stationary spectrometer versus a portable one, the reasons for the observed discrepancies in dose, and potential advantages and disadvantages of each approach for EPR measurements in fingernails.

Impact of the Fukushima Nuclear Accident on Background Radiation Doses Measured by Control Dosimeters in Japan

After the 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent massive tsunami on 11 March 2011 in Japan, several reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant suffered severe damage. There was immediate participation of U.S. Navy vessels and other United States Department of Defense (DoD) teams that were already in the area at the time of the disaster or arrived shortly thereafter. The correct determination of occupational dose equivalent requires estimation of the background dose component measured by control dosimeters, which is subsequently subtracted from the total dose equivalent measured by personal dosimeters. The purpose of the control dosimeters is to determine the amount of radiation dose equivalent that has accumulated on the dosimeter from background or other non-occupational sources while they are in transit or being stored. Given the release of radioactive material and potential exposure to radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and the process by which the U.S. Navy calculates occupational exposure to ionizing radiation, analysis of pre- and post-event control dosimeters is warranted. Several hundred historical dose records from the Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC) database were analyzed and compared with the post-accident dose equivalent data of control dosimeters. As result, it was shown that the dose contribution of the radiation and released radiological materials from the Fukushima nuclear accident to background radiation doses is less than 0.375 μSv d for shallow and deep photon dose equivalent. There is no measurable effect on neutron background exposure. The latter has at least two important conclusions. First, the NDC can use doses measured by control dosimeters at issuing sites in Japan for determination of personnel dose equivalents; second, the dose data from control dosimeters prior to and after the Fukushima accident may be used to assist in dose reconstruction of non-radiological (non-badged) personnel at these locations.

Intercomparison exercise within a distributed-dosimetry network

The results of an intercomparison exercise within the US Navy dosimetric network (USN-DN) are presented and discussed. The USN-DN uses a commercially available LiF:Mg,Cu,P thermoluminescent dosemeter (TLD) model Harshaw 8840/8841 and TLD reader model Harshaw 8800 manufactured by Thermo Fisher Scientific. The USN-DN consists of a single calibration facility and 16 satellite dosimetry reading facilities throughout the world with ∼ 40 model 8800 TLD readers and in excess of 350 000 TLD cards in circulation. The Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC) is the primary calibration site responsible for the distribution and calibration of all TLD cards and their associated holders. In turn, each satellite facility is assigned a subpopulation of cards, which are utilised for servicing their local customers. Consistency of the NDC calibration of 150 dosemeters (calibrated at NDC) and 27 locally calibrated remote readers was evaluated in the framework of this intercomparison. Accuracy of TLDs' calibration, performed at the NDC, was found to be <3 % throughout the entire network. Accuracy of the readers' calibration, performed with the NDC issued calibration dosemeters at remote sites, was found to be better than 4 % for most readers. The worst performance was found for reader Channel 3, which is calibrated using the thinnest chip of the Harshaw 8840/8841 dosemeter. The loss of sensitivity of this chip may be caused by time-temperature profile that has been designed for all four chips without consideration of chip thickness.

Long-term fade study of the DT-702 LiF: Mg,Cu,P TLD

LiF thermoluminescent dosemeters (TLDs) are used by the US Navy to record radiation exposure of personnel. The Model DT-648 LiF:Mg,Ti TLD has been replaced by a new Model DT-702 LiF:Mg,Cu,P TLD. The DT-648 was used for many years and has undergone extensive testing to identify its pre- and post-irradiation fade operating characteristics. Studies have shown that the addition of copper increases the thermoluminesence sensitivity of the TLD for improved low-level radiation monitoring. This study evaluates various fading characteristics of the new copper-doped dosemeter using current equipment for processing of TLDs and calibrating to a National Institute of Standards and Technology standard source. The 57-week study took place at the Naval Dosimetry Center, Bethesda, MD, USA. TLDs were stored for various lengths of time before and after being exposed to a National Institute of Standards and Technology calibrated radiation sources. TLDs were then processed using current US Navy instructions and the resulting dose compared with the calibrated exposure. Both loss of signal and loss of sensitivity were evaluated. The results of this study have shown that the DT-702 TLD has no statistically significant change in sensitivity or change in signal with up to 57 weeks of pre- or post-irradiation time. The results of this study will increase the accuracy of exposure record keeping for the Navy and will allow longer issue periods. This will increase flexibility with international and domestic shipping procedures, as well as reduce workload requirements for dosimetry processing.

Technical aspects of the Naval Dosimetry Center quality assurance programme

The purpose of this paper is to describe the technical aspects of the Naval Dosimetry Center (NDC) quality programme. The Navy has been formally monitoring personnel for occupational exposure to ionising radiation since at least 1946. The current system, the DT-702/PD, is the Harshaw 8840 holder and 8841 card. New card and holder checks are performed to verify that the correct LiF elements and holder filters are in the correct location and are of the correct composition. Element correction coefficient (ECC) magnitude and repeatability are also verified. Several quality assurance parameters are checked by a specially designed shipping machine. Calibration cards are used to calibrate each reader and quality control cards are inserted throughout a group of field cards to verify reader operation during the read process. The success of the programme is measured by annual proficiency tests administered by the National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Programme and Pacific Northwest National Laboratories.

A new paradigm in personal dosimetry using LiF:Mg,Cu,P.

The United States Navy has been monitoring personnel for occupational exposure to ionising radiation since 1947. Film was exclusively used until 1973 when thermoluminescence dosemeters were introduced and used to the present time. In 1994, a joint research project between the Naval Dosimetry Center, Georgetown University, and Saint Gobain Crystals and Detectors (formerly Bicron RMP formerly Harshaw TLD) began to develop a state of the art thermoluminescent dosimetry system. The study was conducted from a large-scale dosimetry processor point of view with emphasis on a systems approach. Significant improvements were achieved by replacing the LiF:Mg,Ti with LiF:Mg,Cu,P TL elements due to the significant sensitivity increase, linearity, and negligible hiding. Dosemeter filters were optimised for gamma and X ray energy discrimination using Monte Carlo modelling (MCNP) resulting in significant improvement in accuracy and precision. Further improvements were achieved through the use of neural-network based dose calculation algorithms. Both back propagation and functional link methods were implemented and the data compared with essentially the same results. Several operational aspects of the system are discussed, including (1) background subtraction using control dosemeters, (2) selection criteria for control dosemeters, (3) optimisation of the TLD readers, (4) calibration methodology, and (5) the optimisation of the heating profile.

The US Naval Dosimetry Centre Thermoluminescence Dosimetry System

The US Naval Dosimetry Center thermoluminescence dosimetry system is presented. The dosemeter algorithm accounts for individual chip response, reader calibration, and particular operational requirements of the navy. Lower limits of detection are used in the algorithm. Results of the United States National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation Program are presented. The accuracy of the system is within the required performance criteria.