Nature Of Second Language Acquisition Research Articles

The effect of “at home” network communication, off-site travel, and extracurricular activity on longitudinal social network development in study abroad

The nature of second language acquisition (SLA) in study abroad hinges on the type and quality of social relationships that sojourners develop. Social network analysis is now frequently used to describe this development, and to quantify its relationship with SLA outcomes. However, little is known about how different experiential components in study abroad affect sojourners' social network development and, consequently, language learning. The present study examines the effect of three aspects of the study abroad experience – travel outside of the study site; maintenance of “at home” social network communication; and participation in volunteer and workplace internship placements – on the longitudinal social network development of 28 U.S.-based sojourners studying abroad in Spain for one semester. Results identify four social network patterns, which for most students emerged in the first weeks of the semester and remained stable at the middle and end of the sojourn. This social network development was not greatly affected by communication with at-home networks, or by participation in internship placements; however, frequent travel outside the study site was shown to considerably hinder sojourners’ ability to develop social networks that were rich in target language use, or that reflected social “immersion” into the host community.

SLA as complex, dynamical and predictable: A Processability Theory perspective

This article enters the debate about the complex and dynamical nature of second language acquisition (SLA) by discussing and commenting on Pallotti’s critique of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST). Pallotti’s critique brings to the fore the argument that, due to its anti-reductionist stance, CDST research fails to observe three fundamental research criteria, namely that research should (1) construct models, (2) make generalizations and falsifiable predictions and (3) adopt clear empirical approaches. While Pallotti does not explore research already moving SLA beyond anti-reductionist approaches to complexity and dynamism, the debate can be advanced by examining research doing exactly this. This article aims to evaluate the extent to which Processability Theory (PT) – a theory of second language (L2) processing that advocates reductionism for the sake of theory construction – meets Pallotti’s criteria for researching L2 complexity and dynamics. By discussing Pallotti’s – and PT’s – criticisms of CDST, the article outlines the implied research criteria and delineates how PT meets these criteria by (1) its bidimensional design, (2) its generalizations and falsifiable predictions for development and variation, and (3) its operationalization of constructs. Findings from a longitudinal study of L2 English are presented. These findings elucidate that, by meeting the criteria, PT can reveal the predictable, implicational development of processing complexity in eight learners and the patterned, dynamical interaction between development and variation in the trajectories of two of these learners. The article concludes that PT fulfils Pallotti’s (2022) criteria and, by a reductionist approach which models SLA as multidimensional, it can generate what CDST cannot; dynamical and complex L2 systems which progress in predictable stages, with well-defined constraints on variation, including DST-defined constraints. The article closes by discussing the implications of PT’s approach for future research on L2 complexity and dynamics.

Problems in Teaching English in Indian Classrooms: Issues and Remedies

This paper examines the present status of English as a second language in India. It defines language and identifies the factors that affect second language learning. It discusses different problems faced by learners of English and what is the right way of language acquisition for second language learners in India. Language acts as an instrument to express effectively in various communicative situations. However, it is the very second language which requires a conscious and diligent, systematic efforts to acquire or master it. Second language acquisition is really a big challenge for all native speakers of that language who really deal with it. The majority of Indian students, particularly from rural pockets, especially in the states of Bihar, eastern U.P. and Maharashtra, consider this seven –letter word as a magical and mystical word. A feeling of uneasiness sets in, the moment they hear something in English. As a result of this, teachers who handle English classes face insurmountable difficulties. Students find it difficult to listen and to understand the English language. What are the reasons for this? What are the remedial measures to be taken to alleviate these problems? This paper is an attempt to discuss the nature of second language acquisition and the factors responsible for its slow acquisition. Appropriate and adequate remedial measures are cited for the successful rectification of these problems.

“Je ziet het pas als je het doorhebt”

Abstract In spite of convincing empirical evidence for the implicit nature of second language acquisition, second language teaching is still largely based on explicit instruction. The discrepancy between research and teaching is caused by deeply rooted assumptions about language learning. One of the most critical assumptions is that there is a linear and causal relationship between explicit grammar instruction and the process of language acquisition. We learn, it is assumed, by internalizing explicit grammar rules and by storing declarative lexical knowledge.In this contribution, I will show how, contrary to these assumptions, language acquisition is characterized by a dynamic process of development that is strongly individual and hard to predict. This dynamic view on language acquisition is supported by longitudinal studies of language acquisition in different domains.This dynamic perspective of second language development has relevant implications for language instruction. The most important implication is that communicative interaction and intensive exposure to the second language, combined with systematic support of the language learner, stand a better chance of successful language learning than explicit instruction.

F0 patterns of tone versus non-tone languages: The case of Vietnamese speakers of English

This article reports a study that aimed to find out whether F0 patterns of L2 English produced by Vietnamese speakers are different to those of native English speakers, whether the non-native F0 patterns are transferred from Vietnamese, and to what extent English and Vietnamese F0 profiles differ. Ten native/L1 Australian English speakers, 20 Vietnamese speakers of English (10 beginners and 10 advanced speakers) and a control group of four native/L1 Vietnamese speakers were included. The F0 profiles (F0 maximum, F0 minimum, F0 range, F0 mean and F0 standard deviation at three levels: utterance, syllable and phoneme) were obtained from a set of 10 English sentences and 20 Vietnamese utterances. The results showed that F0 patterns of beginning-level L2 English are systematically different from those of native English speakers, which can be transferred from their native tone language. Nevertheless, the advanced speakers’ ability to produce native-like F0 patterns indicates the effect of language learning experience on prosodic acquisition. The data and results of this study contribute to the understanding of the process and nature of second language acquisition.

In faint praise of folly

This study critically examines the widespread practice of comparing the linguistic processes and representations of non-native speakers with those of natives. We argue that, in some respects, the method yields benefits, while in others it does not serve the interests of research into the nature of second language acquisition and bilingualism. We go on to consider certain analytical approaches that skirt the hazards of the method. The potential payoffs of native/non-native comparisons are illustrated in a priming study of monolingual and bilingual processing of ambiguity in complex French syntax (Gertken 2013).

Cognitive Semantic ways of teaching figurative phrases

In this article I review studies published between 1996 and 2010 in which the effectiveness of Cognitive-Semantics informed second language pedagogy was put to the test. Altogether, the published evidence is manifestly favourable, although questions remain as to the scope of application of the approach and the precise properties that produce its positive effects. It must also be recognised that Cognitive Semantic ventures into language pedagogy stand a lot to gain from a closer collaboration with ‘mainstream’ applied linguistics, not only with regard to general insights into the nature of second language acquisition but also with regard to this type of research methodology.

Symbiotic Gesture and the Sociocognitive Visibility of Grammar in Second Language Acquisition

This article argues for the embodied and environmentally embedded nature of second language acquisition (SLA). Through fine‐grained analysis of interaction using Goodwin's (2003a) concept of symbiotic gesture—gesture coupled with its rich environmental context to produce complex social action—we illustrate how a tutor, learner, and grammar worksheet interact to create perceptible links across cognition, social action, and the material world in studying English grammar. We begin by summarizing what we mean by a sociocognitive approach to SLA. We then describe the mundane‐looking grammar worksheet as a complex sociocognitive resource that enables tutor–learner interaction. Next, we provide an extended description of the tutor's repeated use of a symbiotic gesture to make her perception of the grammar instantiated in the worksheet publicly available to the learner. We conclude by arguing that SLA involves the dynamic, interactive alignment of learners, teachers, and their ever‐changing environments, suggesting that symbiotic gesture is but one example of humanly improvised resources guiding ecosocial alignment and participation in SLA.

Toward a Second Language Socialization Perspective: Issues in Study Abroad Research

Abstract: The last few decades have seen a proliferation of research on study abroad (SA). A review of SA research literature shows general inconsistencies and inconclusiveness on certain issues, particularly on SA outcomes and their factors. This article discusses such inconsistencies in terms of the highly variable contexts and vastly unstable nature of second language acquisition (SLA). It is evident that the amount and the quality of interactional encounters with native speakers, along with learners' identity, play a major role in language acquisition in the SA context. Accordingly, the researcher argues for a socialization perspective on documenting and interpreting the SLA process in the SA context, with an emphasis on learner identity.

A “linguistic approach” to the idiosyncratic nature of second language acquisition: Monosyllabic place-holders and morpheme orders

It is important that there be different approaches to Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research, some of which will be contrasting and some complementary. In the former case, the contrast may lead to a review of assumptions which will result in mutual or unilateral enrichment. In the latter case, it is obvious that we are to aim at achieving a comprehensive view of SLA. In this respect, in the paper by De Bot, Lowie and Werspoor, “A Dynamic Systems Theory approach to second language acquisition”, while there is some room for a complementary approach, what stands out is a view contrasting with the Universal Grammar (UG) view. For instance, the authors mention Larsen-Freeman (2002) – one of the pioneers of the application of the Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) to SLA research – as suggesting that a UG approach and the DST may be two complementary perspectives, but they emphasize that Larsen-Freeman is very much on the side of emergentist (non-nativist) views. Furthermore, they make it clear that leading DST researchers “leave little room for nativist ideas on language acquisition” (p. 10). However, while the authors put the DST forward as the approach that can avoid the shortcomings of a partial model which only deals with cognitive aspects of language development, they fail to recognize that the cognitive approach has never claimed to have all the answers to the SLA phenomenon, and neither do they. In fact, what we would like to show in this commentary is that the “linguistic” or “cognitive” approach to SLA research can account (and even explain) why native (L1) and non-native (L2) grammars are different. In order to show this, we will address two issues that De Bot, Lowie and Werspoor use as evidence against the nativist approach: Newport's (1991) “less is more” hypothesis and the authors' review of the “variation and morpheme order studies”. We will be discussing their views from the UG approach perspective which we refer to as the “Linguistic Approach” and which has its foundation in the nativist Chomskian tradition which, in the case of SLA research, is represented in volumes such as Liceras (1986), White (1989, 2003), Strozer (1994) and Hawkins (2001), among many others.

The Virginia Governor's German Academy: A Model for Extended Summer Immersion Programs

Today's emphasis on the communicative nature of second language acquisition requires the development of new approaches to foreign language teaching. ACTFL provides guidelines for the evaluation of functional proficiency, and classroom teachers continue to seek new and effective ways to help students improve their communicative performance. Many teachers are implementing new methods and strategies to attain this goal. However, their efforts are often hindered by the logistics of the traditional school setting: high student-to-teacher ratio, limited instructional time and few opportunities for outside language reinforcement. To enhance the classroom experience the Commonwealth of Virginia implemented in 1986 a highly experimental program. At the Virginia Governor's French, German and Spanish Academies students and teachers have the opportunity to work for one month in an intensive immersion environment free from the limitations of the conventional school setting. The purpose of this article is to relate the history and philosophy of the Virginia Governor's German Academy and to provide a model for others considering an immersion program.

A Direction for Contrastive Analysis: The Comparative Study of Developmental Sequences

This paper compares developmental sequences for mature L2 structures with a view to determining influences of the learner's L1 on them. Two kinds of L1 influence are identified: the pace with which a sequence is traversed and the number of developmental structures in a sequence. The paper concludes with some tentative proposals concerning the interaction of prior L1 knowledge and the creative construction process. Second language acquisition research of the last several years has contributed much toward a refinement of the contrastive analysis hypothesis as originally proposed by Lado in 1957. For one, given the dynamic nature of second language acquisition, it has become evident that contrastive descriptions based on mature structures of the L2 are of doubtful validity in attempts to predict points of facilitation or interference. In this approach, the contrastive researcher is comparing an ideal terminal state, equivalent to quasi-native speakers competence in the L2, with the learner's L1. Structures of the L2, however, are acquired by progressing through a sequence of developmental stages. Hence, if the contrastive analysis hypothesis is to provide a theoretical perspective for second language acquisition study, it is paramount that the role of prior L1 knowledge be conceptualized as a variable which may introduce variation into a developmental sequence. A further refinement of the contrastive analysis hypothesis has been made possible by mounting evidence pointing to the indirect and highly constrained nature of Li influence. Marked structural contrast, for example, tends to promote avoidance or underrepresentation rather than a mechanical imposition of Li structures (Schachter 1974, Hakuta 1975). Work by Kellerman (1977), Gass (1979), and Gundel, Sheldon, and Tarone (1981) converges on the insight that linguistic features which are marked by virtue of their limited distribution cross-linguistically will tend not to be eligible candidates for Ll influence. Also, now that some of the dust surrounding the morpheme order studies has settled, a picture that has * An earlier version of this paper bearing a different title was presented at the 15th Annual TESOL Conference, Detroit, March 3-8. The author is indebted to Stephen Krashen for some valuable discussion and correspondence.