Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials Wastes Research Articles

Regulatory requirements to support a specific regulation of oil norm waste in Brazil.

The oil and natural gas industry is one of the largest producers of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) worldwide. The scale and sludge are NORM wastes with the highest activity concentration levels, reaching 3500Bq per g of 226Ra (scale). As wastes (sludge, scale, and produced water) are constantly produced in routine activities, a specific regulation for these wastes is necessary. Therefore, this study presents the regulatory requirements that may serve as a basis for the responsible regulatory body to prepare a specific regulation for the NORM waste generated by the oil industry. As a study published showing that the disposal of bulk NORM waste (not packaged wastes) is viable in Brazil, requirements for the management of these wastes and the characteristics of the landfill for disposal were included.

Improved toxic and radioactive elements immobilization in tin slag-blended lithium aluminate borate glass

Ever-increasing production of tin slag (TS) by various tin smelting industries in Malaysia remains a major environmental concern, wherein a large amount of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) as wastes are dumped annually since 1982 due to the rare earth elements extraction-related activities. Based on this fact, we proposed some tin slag-included lithium aluminate borate (LAB) glass for improved immobilization of both toxic and radioactive elements present in waste using vitrification. These glasses of composition (50–0.5x)Li2O-xAl2O3-(50–0.5x)B2O3 (0.0 ≤ x ≤ 4.0 mol%) blended with 5, 15 and 30 wt% of TS were made by the standard melt-quenching method and characterized to determine their radioactive wastes immobilization potency. The obtained glasses were immersed in deionized water (DW) at 90 °C for up to 28 days to evaluate their durability. The weight loss of the samples was assessed by applying leaching tests. Inductively coupled plasma-optical electron spectra confirmed the ion exchange-mediate interdiffusion leaching of glass, indicating the presence of Li, Al, and Th in contacting water. The pH values of the solutions were increased from 7.00 to 11.93 with the increase in immersion time which was due to the leaching of Li (alkali metal) from the glass. FTIR spectra exhibited distinct absorption bands characteristics to the vibrations of various chemical functional groups like Al–O, B–O–B, BO4, BO3 and O–H stretching, confirming the association between radioactive waste and glass constituents. The observed bands at 850-1750 cm−1 and 3200 cm−1 corresponded to the vibration of the borate network and O–H bonds, indicating the occurrence of a leaching-mediated hydrolysis process. High-purity germanium gamma-ray spectroscopy was used to determine the radioactivity level of radionuclide (Bq g−1) in all samples powder. The radioactivity levels were found to be below the exempted waste limit set by IAEA safety standard for NORM wastes which is 1 Bq g−1 for 232Th and 238U and 10 Bq g−1 for 40K. In other words, the studied LAB glass containing NORM waste is suitable for conventional waste disposal as it is considered an ecologically safe material as other waste. The 90% reduction in radioactivity levels of the LAB glass containing TS compared to the TS itself indicated a successful dilution process of the studied glass, a part of excellent hydrolytic resistance characteristics. Therefore, it is suggested that the proposed LAB glass system in the present study is practical for NORM radioactive waste immobilization.

A review of current inventory for major industries involving naturally occurring radioactive materials in Canada

Earth materials contain radionuclides of natural origin in varying concentrations. Exposure to natural sources dominates the occupational and public exposure to ionizing radiation. Canada has one of the largest and most diverse supplies of natural resources in the world. A large quantity of material production is associated with a large quantity of waste releases to the environment. Releases from industries involving naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) can concentrate trace amounts of natural radionuclides and are often poorly characterized. This raises concerns for occupational and public health. Currently, there are data and knowledge gaps in radiological characteristics of NORM products and waste or releases to the environment. For the evaluation of occupational and public exposure to natural sources, a review of current inventory for major industries involving NORM in Canada was conducted with the objective to provide basic information on major issues, help set the priority for research needs to filling these data and knowledge gaps.

REVIEW OF NORM DISTRIBUTION AND BEHAVIORS IN PRODUCED WATER FROM OILFIELD INDUSTRIES

According to the noteworthy concentration of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), produced water that is considered a damaging waste resulting from the oil extraction process according to the noteworthy concentration of naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), is regularly disposed into nearby areas, resulting in environmental contamination that raises the possibility of human exposure NORM in various pathways. This paper purposes to provide an extensive examination of the NORM reported in produced water linked with oilfield activities from previous reports. The comparison of NORM values in oilfields around the world demonstrates a vivid understanding of radionuclide behaviors associated with oil extraction operations. The results illustrate that Radium isotopes are the most radionuclides abundant in produced water, especially Radium-226, activity concentrations of U-238 and Th-232 were remarkable to be low in the water. Oil extraction is increasing, leading to more produced water being disposed of, which is a real concern for human health, so a depth study is recommended to focus on minimization and other management methods of produced water instead of being disposed of. Furthermore, the NORM waste and its influence could be minimized by obeying the recommended standard set by IAEA and other environmental protection agencies.

NORM waste, cements, and concretes. A review

The use of industrial waste and/or by-products as alternative sources of raw materials in building materials has become standard practice. The result, more sustainable construction, is contributing to the institution of a circular economy. Nonetheless, all necessary precautions must be taken to ensure that the inclusion and use of such materials entail no new health hazard for people or their environment. Due to the processes involved in generating industrial waste/by-products, these alternative or secondary materials may be contaminated with heavy metals, other undesirable chemicals or high levels of natural radioactivity that may constrain their use. In-depth and realistic research on such industrial waste is consequently requisite to its deployment in building materials. This paper reviews the basic concepts associated with radioactivity and natural radioactivity, focusing on industrial waste/by-products comprising Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) used in cement and concrete manufacture. Updated radiological data are furnished on such waste (including plant fly ash, iron and steel mill slag, bauxite and phosphogypsum waste) and on other materials such as limestone, gypsum and so on. The paper also presents recent findings on radionuclide activity concentrations in Portland cements and concretes not bearing NORMs. The role of natural aggregate in end concrete radiological behaviour is broached. The radiological behaviour of alternative non-portland cements and concretes, such as alkali-activated materials and geopolymers, is also addressed.

NORM survey within the second census on pollution sources in China

The Second Census of Pollution Source in China was conducted from 2017 to 2020, and the radioactive target in this census was Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM).The census plan for the radioactive component was prepared by the Nuclear and Radiation Safety Centre of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in accord with the work requirement of the overall census. The work steps involved in performing the census included establishing the organization structure, document formulation, conducting a pilot survey, relevant training, screening of preliminary survey data, quality assurance, detailed data collection and analysis, data verification and reporting, and final summarizing. The survey mainly involved 15 kinds of NORM industries, which include the rare earth, niobium/tantalum, zircon, zirconia and tin industries, etc. Almost 30,000 enterprises were investigated in the screening phase, and nearly 2000 enterprises were determined to satisfy the screening criteriafor the presence of NORM. A total of 3500 samples including discharge water, raw ore, milling ore and solid waste were obtained and measured resulting in about20,000 individual datum. The Nuclear and Radiation Safety Centre of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment had responsibility for the NORM census and has completed a comprehensive statistical analysis of the data including analysis of the characteristics from different perspectives.

TE-NORM Radiological Impact and Radiation Protection in Oil and Gas Industry: A review

Materials having radioactive nuclei and exist naturally on earth are called Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM).235U,238U and 232Th series in addition to 40K are few examples of radioactive elements and their daughter nuclei. NORM can be found either in soil, in water, in plants, in animals or in human being. In oil and gas industries NORM accumulates at different locations (the wellheads, pumps and separation vessels), That may take the form of scales, sludge, scrapings and some other wastes. Unless adequate control procedures are employed, it may be hazardous to workers, ordinary people and environment. The most critical concern to public health from exposure to NORM is the possibility of development of cancer. Having no threshold dose, the induction of cancer due to radiation exposure is thus a stochastic process. Nevertheless, no acute or severe effects comparable to those due to high doses of radiation are expected in case of exposure to Technologically Enhanced NORM (TE-Norm). Uncontrolled release of NORM waste will probably contaminate the environment and threaten human health. Such risks can be avoided through the use of a program for NORM control by oil and gas firms. The program will monitor NORM, control contaminated waste, contaminated equipment, train workers and increase their awareness. By the implementation of appropriate protective procedures at work places one can ensure that the basic principles of radiation protection are functionalized. Therefore, the control of exposure and application of sample dosimetry are the main components of any program for health and safety.

Estimation radiation dose from operation of petroleum NORM waste disposal in landfill using TSD-DOSE

In the petroleum industry, Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) are often enhanced as a result of industrial operation. Radiation protection must be applied in every step of NORM management including disposal. Top rank choice for NORM disposal is landfill. Landfill must provide sufficient protection to both human health and the environment, not only for future but also for operational phase. Landfill workers, including receiving worker, driver and placement worker, are evaluated to estimate potential exposures resulting from landfill operation. Estimation is done for radioisotopes which are of concern in the oil and gas industry, Ra-226, Ra-228, Th-232 and Pb-210. The TSD-DOSE computer code, developed by Argonne National Laboratory, is use to estimate radiological doses to workers from operations at a treatment, storage, and disposal (TSD) facility. The characteristics of the time needed by workers were obtained from observations and discussions with workers at PPLI Cileungsi Hazardous Landfill. Disposal of NORM Waste in bulk form give higher dose than containerized waste. For receiving worker, Ra-226 gives higher dose and for placement worker higher dose arise from Th-232. The size of the vehicle used to transport NORM waste affects the radiation dose received by landfill workers.

NORM inventory forecast for Australian offshore oil and gas decommissioned assets and radioactive waste disposal pathways

This research establishes a decommissioning timeline for the existing oil and gas facilities across all of the Australian offshore oil and gas production basins. Minimal data exist in the public domain to estimate these decommissioning timelines and, more importantly, the significant waste volumes generated; including potentially hazardous wastes such as naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM). At this time there is no approved onshore radioactive waste disposal pathway in Australia to accommodate this material. Applying an estimation methodology, based on Norwegian decommissioning data with regional activity factors, allows a NORM waste forecast to be established for the decommissioning of Australian oil and gas offshore infrastructure. The total NORM disposal burden is estimated to be in the range of 223–1674 tonnes for decommissioning activity to 2060, with over 68% of this material generated between 2018 and 2025. Due to the sparsity of public domain data this forecast is deemed to be uncertain and excludes the NORM contamination anticipated to be present in subsea export pipelines, trunklines and well production tubing. Current regulations governing the categorisation and disposal of radioactive wastes across Australia are complex and regionally dependent. This regional variation makes the implementation of a national radioactive waste disposal facility more difficult, and encourages the export of radioactive wastes overseas for final disposal. Exporting of radioactive wastes potentially presents a higher risk compared with in-country disposal and is likely not an effective long-term proposition. A comprehensive NORM data collection and quantification assessment programme, spanning all onshore and offshore oil and gas infrastructure, needs to implemented to drive and verify a NORM waste management strategy for the wave of facility decommissioning projects that are fast approaching.

Role of geomembrane to prevent water pollution and radiation exposure in landfill for NORM waste from the oil and gas industries

Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) can be concentrated and increased by oil and gas extraction processes. NORM disposal must provide adequate protection to both human health and the environment, which one choice is landfill. The main parameters of concern in the safety of landfills are leachate which could cause water pollution and also radioactive contamination. Leachate can be reduced by using geomembrane in landfill design. In this paper, leaching simulation has been carried out using the required design of class I landfill to see the role of geomembrane to prevent water pollution and reduce radiation dose. Leaching simulations are carried out using the US EPA Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill Performance software. Simulations of radiation assessment are performed using RESRAD. Landfill is assumed as residential area, with people with people living there and produces their food from that land. From simulation result, appearance of geomembrane can reduce leaching water at bottom layer of landfill from 8.58% of total infiltrated water to 0. For 1 Bq/gram Ra-226, people in landfill with geomembrane are exposed maximum 0.183 mSv/year with radon as dominant exposure. Compared without geomembrane, the maximum exposure is 3.846 mSv/year with drinking water consumption as dominant exposure.

Calculation methods of Radon-222 radiological activity for NORM plant with ventilation

A procedure is proposed to determine the radiological activity of air present in the working area of a NORM (Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials) plant. This NORM plant is located in the United Arab Emirates and is dedicated to the recycling of material and equipment used in oil extraction facilities. Substantial quantities of NORM waste will be present inside the enclosed plant facilities and will exhale significant amounts of Radon-222 into the working environment. The continued inhalation of this gas and its progeny has been shown to cause lung cancer. In order to reduce the concentration level of the aforementioned gas to an acceptable regulatory value, the best solution is by means of mechanical ventilation. The two calculation methods used to analysis the relationship between the ventilation rate and the degree of radioactive contamination are considered. The first being ventilation by perfect dilution, commonly employed in industrial environments with radiological contamination. The second method of analysis is by means of a CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) which permits a more precise calculation of the required fresh air quantity and spatial concentrations. Validation was carried out in a small experimental plant space, obtaining results reasonable approximate to those predicted by the computational analysis. The similarities and differences between the respective calculation methods and their respective fields of application are analyzed.It is concluded that for lower air change rates, less than five air changes per hour, the CFD analysis is the most appropriate method. By contrast, when using a higher rate of outside air changes in the plant, the perfect dilution method should be sufficient enough to control the presence of radon and its progeny. Both calculation methods consider the activity of radon and the activity of the most significant radioisotopes of its progeny.

Determination of Ra leachability from filter materials originating from water treatment plant

NORM (Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material) waste management is a relatively new issue in Estonia. At the present moment, the largest volumes come from water treatment plants, where the Ra isotopes Ra-226 and Ra-228 accumulate in the filter material in the process of water purification. In the absence of prior experience and legislation, the best solution is considered to be the deposition of such material in landfill (Kiisk, 2016). In order to evaluate the possible leaching of Ra into the groundwater, experimental determination of Ra leachability from filter material is conducted within this study. The activity concentrations of the filter materials used in this study ranged from approximately 4700 to 22100 Bq/kg. The study is based on two standard methods, the batch test and percolation test, and has created environments which, in addition to imitation of natural rainwater (0.001M CaCl2), could also describe landfill conditions due to their high leachate concentrations. The results obtained suggest that Ra concentrations remains equally low for all solutions, ranging from 0.2 to 4 Bq/kg. Partition coefficient Kd, the parameter describing leaching, ranges mainly from 10000 to 33000 L/kg in the case of dilute solutions (0.001M CaCl2 solution, TDS of 111 mg/L and dilute artificial leachate with TDS of 809 mg/L) and stays around 3000 L/kg in the case of more concentrated solutions (artificial leachates with TDS of 5467 mg/L and 12160 mg/L).

Geochemical signature of NORM waste in Brazilian oil and gas industry

The Brazilian Nuclear Energy Agency (CNEN) is responsible for any radioactive waste storage and disposal in the country. The storage of radioactive waste is carried out in the facilities under CNEN regulation and its disposal is operated, managed and controlled by the CNEN. Oil NORM (Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials) in this article refers to waste coming from oil exploitation. Oil NORM has called much attention during the last decades, mostly because it is not possible to determine its primary source due to the actual absence of a regulatory control mechanism. There is no efficient regulatory tool which allows determining the origin of such NORM wastes even among those facilities under regulatory control. This fact may encourage non-authorized radioactive material transportation, smuggling and terrorism. The aim of this project is to provide a geochemical signature for oil NORM waste using its naturally occurring isotopic composition to identify its origin. The here proposed method is the modeling of radioisotopes normally present in oil pipe contamination such as 228Ac, 214Bi and 214Pb analyzed by gamma spectrometry. The specific activities of elements from different decay series are plotted in a scatter diagram. This method was successfully tested with gamma spectrometry analyses of oil sludge NORM samples from four different sources obtained from Petrobras reports for the Campos Basin/Brazil.

ESTIMATION OF EXPOSURE DOSES FOR THE SAFE MANAGEMENT OF NORM WASTE DISPOSAL.

Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) wastes with different radiological characteristics are generated in several industries. The appropriate options for NORM waste management including disposal options should be discussed and established based on the act and regulation guidelines. Several studies calculated the exposure dose and mass of NORM waste to be disposed in landfill site by considering the activity concentration level and exposure dose. In 2012, the Korean government promulgated an act on the safety control of NORM around living environments to protect human health and the environment. For the successful implementation of this act, we suggest a reference design for a landfill for the disposal of NORM waste. Based on this reference landfill, we estimate the maximum exposure doses and the relative impact of each pathway to exposure dose for three scenarios: a reference scenario, an ingestion pathway exclusion scenario, and a low leach rate scenario. Also, we estimate the possible quantity of NORM waste disposal into a landfill as a function of the activity concentration level of U series, Th series and 40K and two kinds of exposure dose levels, 1 and 0.3 mSv/y. The results of this study can be used to support the establishment of technical bases of the management strategy for the safe disposal of NORM waste.

Variance in State Protection from Exposure to NORM and TENORM Wastes Generated During Unconventional Oil and Gas Operations: Where We Are and Where We Need to Go.

Radioactive materials for the medical, technological, and industrial sectors have been effectively regulated in the United States since as early as 1962. The steady increase in the exploration and production of shale gas in recent years has led to concerns about exposures to Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) and Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (TENORM) in oil and gas waste streams. This study applied policy surveillance methods to conduct a cross-sectional fifty-state survey of law and regulations of NORM and TENORM waste from oil and gas operations. Results indicated that seventeen states drafted express regulations to reduce exposure to oil and gas NORM and TENORM waste. States with active oil and gas drilling that lack regulations controlling exposure to NORM and TENORM may leave the public and workers susceptible to adverse health effects from radiation. The study concludes with recommendations in regard to regulating oil and gas NORM and TENORM waste.

Uranium Mining and Norm in North America-Some Perspectives on Occupational Radiation Exposure.

All soils and rocks contain naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM). Many ores and raw materials contain relatively elevated levels of natural radionuclides, and processing such materials can further increase the concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides. In the U.S., these materials are sometimes referred to as technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM). Examples of NORM minerals include uranium ores, monazite (a source of rare earth minerals), and phosphate rock used to produce phosphate fertilizer. The processing of these materials has the potential to result in above-background radiation exposure to workers. Following a brief review of the sources and potential for worker exposure from NORM in these varied industries, this paper will then present an overview of uranium mining and recovery in North America, including discussion on the mining methods currently being used for both conventional (underground, open pit) and in situ leach (ISL), also referred to as In Situ Recovery (ISR), and the production of NORM materials and wastes associated with these uranium recovery methods. The radiological composition of the NORM products and wastes produced and recent data on radiological exposures received by workers in the North American uranium recovery industry are then described. The paper also identifies the responsible government agencies in the U.S. and Canada assigned the authority to regulate and control occupational exposure from these NORM materials.

Assessment for the management of NORM wastes in conventional hazardous and nonhazardous waste landfills

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) wastes are generated in huge quantities in several industries and their management has been carried out under considerations of industrial non-radioactive wastes, before the concern on the radioactivity content was included in the legislation. Therefore these wastes were conditioned using conventional methods and the waste disposals were designed to isolate toxic elements from the environment for long periods of time. Spanish regulation for these conventional toxic waste disposals includes conditions that assure adequate isolation to minimize the impact of the wastes to the environment in present and future conditions.After 1996 the radiological impact of the management of NORM wastes is considered and all the aspects related with natural radiations and the radiological control regarding the management of residues from NORM industries were developed in the new regulation. One option to be assessed is the disposal of NORM wastes in hazardous and non-hazardous waste disposals, as was done before this new regulation.This work analyses the management of NORM wastes in these landfills to derive the masses that can be disposed without considerable radiological impact. Generic dose assessments were carried out under highly conservative hypothesis and a discussion on the uncertainty and variability sources was included to provide consistency to the calculations.

Recovery of NORM from scales generated by oil extraction

Scales, containing naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM), are a major problem in oil production that lead to costly remediation and disposal programmes. In view of environmental protection, radio and chemical characterisation is an essential step prior to waste treatment. This study focuses on developing of a protocol to recover 226Ra and 210Pb from scales produced by petroleum industry. X-ray diffractograms of the scales indicated the presence of barite–strontium (Ba0.75Sr0.25SO4) and hokutolite (Ba0.69Pb0.31SO4) as main minerals. Quartz, galena and Ca2Al2SiO6(OH)2 or sphalerite and iron oxide were found in minor quantities. Incineration to 600°C followed by enclosed-digestion and acid-treatment gave complete digestion. Using 133Ba and 210Pb tracers as internal standards gave recovery ranged 87–91% for 226Ra and ca. 100% for 210Pb. Radium was finally dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, while 210Pb dissolved in the former solution as well as in 8 M nitric acid. Dissolving the scales would provide better estimation of their radionuclides contents, facilitate the determination of their chemical composition, and make it possible to recycle NORM wastes in terms of radionuclides production.

QP process for NORM waste transportation

Transportation of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) Contaminated Waste in QP is carried out in accordance with the Radiation Protection Laws and QP Radiation Protection Standard for NORM Management (QP-STD-S-055). The QP Standard stipulates requirements for ensuring protection of persons and environmental from NORM impact, which is in line with the requirements of the Ministry of Environment (MoE) Resolution No. 45/2013, concerning the management of NORM Waste generated by Oil & Gas Industry in the State of Qatar. In addition, standard provides directions to all QP Operations, Contractors/Sub-Contractors and QP Join Venture companies (JVs) working within QP Premises on-shore and off-shore for identification, handling, transportation, storage and disposal of NORM Waste and related activities. Transportation of the NORM waste is carried out in accordance with the requirements as follows: The radiation level shall not exceed 5 µSv/h at the surface of each container of collected NORM waste. Ends of pipes shall be packed to prevent the spread of contaminated radioactive substances. If the pipes are large enough, such as valves, pumps, packaging shall be for the entire pipe, while taking all necessary precautions to the non-proliferation of pollutants by using of blind flanges. The relatively large quantities of solid pollutants resulting from sediment mud or solid scaly residues shall be transferred in tanks and separation containers. Big decontaminated substances such as substances with low specific radioactivity shall be transported in barrels or tanks according to industrial parcels. No other substances shall be transported in the vehicle transporting substances or equipment contaminated with natural radioactive substances. When transporting NORM waste substances by sea, a suitable container specific for transport shall be used, to ensure no leakage or spillage of pollutants. The licensee, when transporting in any vehicle, shall develop a detailed written transport plan that includes steps to be taken under a state of emergency, and the plan shall be submitted to the Ministry of Environment (MoE). To transfer the components such as valves and non-radioactive pipes, if the surface is contaminated, such as surface polluted objects, the transportation requirements depends on the level of the permanent and non permanent surface contamination emitting of beta and alpha particles. Transportation index shall be designated on each barrel. The choice of the appropriate warning sign to be attached to the barrel is determined by measuring equivalent radiation dose (Micro Sievert/hour) at 1 meter from the surface of the barrel, divided by 10, as well as measuring the equivalent radiation dose on the surface of the barrel directly. To transport the natural radioactive substances or contaminated with these substances, an exclusive-use vehicles shall be used. Boats used to transport substances or contaminated equipment from offshore platforms, shall use standard marked containers. Contaminated substances that cannot be stored in standard containers shall be protected in a controlled manner to ensure no leak or spill of radioactive substances during transport. Before sending the natural radioactive substances, the receiving party shall be notified. Vessel shall be provided with radioactive warning signs, transportation, guide and other specific stickers for transport. QP managed successfully to transport 4 containers (111 drums) of “NORM” from Halul Island to Dukhan HSE Yard No.3, during in October 2014. Part of the process was managed through sea transportation from Halul to Ras Laffan Jetty, and then through land transportation from Ras Laffan to Dukhan. Transportation process was carried out in full compliance with the requirements of Radiation Protection Law No.31 for 2002, Ministerial Decision No. 45 for 2013 regarding NORM Management and Corporate NORM Management Standard QP-STD-S-055. The Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) of the transportation process and transportation date was communicated, discussed and agreed by MoE, 48 hours before transportation date. NORM waste was dispatched to the dedicated Dukhan NORM Storage Yard safely, securely and without any risk for the human and environment, under direct supervision Corporate HSEQ.

Manufacture of Ceramic Bodies by Using a Mud Waste from the TiO<sub>2</sub> Pigment Industry

The main objective of this paper is focused in the use of waste generated by the TiO2 pigment industry, ilmenite mud (MUD), on the production of ceramic bodies. These ceramic bodies were produced from mixtures of a commercial red stoneware mixture (RSM) with different concentrations of mud (3, 5, 7, 10, 30 and 50 wt%). The samples were sintered to simulate a fast-firing process. The sintering behaviour of the fired samples was evaluated according to ISO rules by linear shrinkage, water absorption and porosity measurements. Both green powder and fired samples were characterised by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC/TG), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and bending strength measurements. Moreover, the activity concentrations of radionuclides were measured by high-resolution low-background gamma spectrometry, because this mud is a NORM (Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material) waste. Finally, the TCLP leaching test (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure, USEPA) was performed to assess the risks of use tiles from an environmental perspective. The results demonstrated that MUD can be successfully valorisated in the manufacture of red stoneware ceramic bodies with similar, or even better technological properties than commercial materials used currently.