Natural Salt Licks Research Articles

Local community dependence on salt licks in North and Central Sarawak, Malaysia (Borneo)

Local communities worldwide utilise natural salt licks for hunting or extracting salts. In Sarawak, salt licks are not protected by legislation, and limited documentation is available regarding the community dependence on such resources. This study investigates the dependence of indigenous Sarawak communities on natural salt licks. A quantitative questionnaire survey using snowball sampling approach was conducted, targeting 27 individuals from communities residing nearby nine salt licks in northern and central Sarawak. These communities included the Kenyah (18), Iban (four), Berawan (three), Kelabit (one) and others (one). The survey revealed that the saly licks were mainly utilised for hunting (92.6%) or to collect salt (7.4%). A majority of respondents (57.1%) reported catching one to two animals on each hunting trip near a salt lick. Sambar deer (38.5%) was recorded as the most commonly observed animal at these sites, followed by wild boar (24.6%) and muntjacs (15.4%). Other species include macaques (10.8%), langurs (7.7%) and mousedeers (3.1%). The study highlights the importance of salt licks and can be used to formulate the development of conservation strategies and management plans for these sites in Sarawak.

Assessment of Nutrients in Natural Saltlicks, Artificial Saltlicks, and General Soils Used by Wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in the Western Forests of Thailand

Saltlicks are fundamental resources for wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). This study aimed to assess the nutrients found in natural saltlicks (NSs) and artificial saltlicks (ASs), as well as general soils (GS) in the natural forest of Salakphra Wildlife Sanctuary (SWS) and a restoration area of Kui Buri National Park (KNP), a which is a forest in Western Thailand. We monitored 33 NSs, 35 ASs, and 20 GSs used by wild Asian elephants. In both areas, the K, Mg, Fe, and Cu in NSs were significantly higher than in ASs. The Ca and Zn in NSs of KNP were lower than the ASs of SWS. The salinity of ASs was the highest, making it significantly higher than that of the NSs in both areas. The ASs can supplement Na, thereby increasing salinity in both areas. The Ca, K, Mg, Fe, and Cu in NSs were significantly higher than in ASs, making them a primary target for elephants. These findings have consequences for conserving elephants and other large herbivores by supplementing essential macro- and micro-nutrients in ASs.

Analysis of Physical and Chemical Properties of Natural Salt Licks and Determination of Animal Presence

Analysis of Physical and Chemical Properties of Natural Salt Licks and Determination of Animal Presence

Variability in the Patterns of Terrestrial Mammals in Visiting The Natural Salt-Licks At a Tropical Forest

Natural salt-licks are visited frequently by various species of terrestrial mammals, but the variability in environmental conditions can modify the mammalian visitation pattern in an inland tropical forest. Given that no similar research has been conducted at Segaliud-Lokan Forest Reserve in Sabah (Malaysia), a scientific research was conducted from July 2019 to February 2020 (eight months), to investigate the effects of variability in the environmental conditions on mammalian visitation patterns to the local natural salt-licks, applying the field assessment and camera trapping techniques. Over all, a total of 12 different mammal species were recorded at four selected salt-licks, and then the visitation frequencies of certain species were confirmed to be significantly influenced by the seasonal variability in rainfall patterns, and also by the variations in onsite and surrounding conditions. Further research is required to validate the influences of variability in explanatory variables that were not included in this scientific study.
 Kata kunci (Keywords): Environmental Condition, Natural Salt-lick, Segaliud-Lokan Forest Reserve, Terrestrial Mammals

The use of salt licks by birds in Peninsular Malaysia

Numerous wildlife species visit salt licks to consume soil (geophagy) or to drink water. Studies have mostly focused on salt lick use by mammals as they are easily identified owing to larger body size, predominance in using these resources, and predictable movement and behaviour, as well as several established hypotheses such as mineral supplementation. However, salt licks are also crucial to some birds. The interest in and documentation of avifaunal geophagy at salt licks have increased in recent years. However, few studies have investigated this phenomenon in Southeast Asia. We used camera traps to document bird species richness, diversity and encounter rates at 20 salt licks (nine natural and 11 artificial) within three reserves (the Royal Belum State Park, Perak and Krau Wildlife Reserve, Pahang, both primary forest, and secondary forest in Tembat Forest Reserve) in Peninsular Malaysia. We compared parameters between the two types of salt lick (natural and artificial) and two types of habitats (primary and secondary forest). We found that salt licks were used by 24 bird species, including pheasants, hornbills, rails, herons, doves, cuckoos, pittas, bulbuls, flycatchers, and estrildid finches. Raptors did not exhibit geophagous behaviour, except for the Brown Wood-Owl (Strix leptogrammica). Most salt lick users were resident carnivores and insectivores. The Asian Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica) and Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) were the most frequent birds at salt licks. Avian species richness in primary forests was similar for both types of salt licks, but species diversity was higher at natural salt licks. Meanwhile, species diversity at artificial salt licks was similar by habitat type, but bird’s species richness was significantly higher at primary forest artificial salt licks than at secondary forest artificial licks. Encounter rates of birds at artificial salt licks were higher than natural salt licks in primary forests. Furthermore, bird encounter rates at secondary forest artificial salt licks were higher than at primary forest artificial licks. We suggest that artificial salt licks can be used to enrich degraded forests since they serve a role similar to that of natural salt licks and can attract birds and other animals. This information is crucial to conservation and biodiversity management planning for protected forests, particularly secondary and degraded forests.

Bornean Pygmy Elephant habitat usage of natural salt licks in Segaliud Lokan Forest Reserve

Bornean pygmy elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis) is crucial in the forests ecosystem as it plays a vital role as a forest engineer. As such, it is crucial to conduct more research to contribute to the conservation of this species. This study examined the pygmy elephant usage of natural salt lick in Segaliud Lokan Forest Reserve (SLFR), also known as FMU19B. Salt lick is vital to maintain wildlife health. This study investigated the elephant’s visitation frequency and examined its activity pattern in the natural salt lick area. A camera trap survey was conducted from November 2019 till August 2020. Four natural salt licks (C50SL, C56SL, C59SL and C60SL), and three non-salt licks (C50NSL, C56NSL, and C59&C60NSL) was selected. The data were analysed using descriptive and statistical analysis. The results show a higher visitation frequency at the salt lick area than the non-salt lick area (p<0.01). The salt lick at C59 was the most frequently visited by the elephant. The activity pattern displayed by the Bornean pygmy elephant shows a higher degree of nocturnal activity (73.3%). This information is essential for the timber concession forest managers to design the conservation work for the species in balancing with the timber extraction activity.

Suitability for salt-lick tourism: A preliminary assessment on the natural salt-licks at Segaliud-Lokan Forest Reserve, Sandakan, Sabah

The natural salt-licks are visited by various species of terrestrial mammals, hence ideal for mammal watching, although the suitability for salt-lick tourism is influenced by other factors. Preliminary research was conducted on the suitability of four natural salt-licks for mammal watching in Segaliud-Lokan Forest Reserve (SLFR), Sabah. The camera trapping survey and field assessment were conducted for eight months, and then the assessment criteria applied in this study included the lick accessibility, detection frequency, species richness, viewable activity sighting probability, reliability and visibility on the terrestrial mammals, at a given lick. A total of 12 different mammal species were recorded, where Sambar Deer, Bearded Pig, Banteng, and Bornean Orang-utan were determined as the main visitor species of this study. Among the four selected salt-licks, the rating score of SL50A (Score=1.71) was significantly lower than those of SL50B, SL56 and SL59 (Score=2.57 respectively, χ2 2 =6.794, p=0.042), hence highlighting that SL50A was not suitable for conducting mammal watching activity, unlike the other three natural licks at SLFR. The assessment on the compatibility between the supply (mammalian physical availability) and demand (highly anticipated species) was excluded from this research, therefore emphasizing the need to fill up this particular research gap in the future.

An Update on the Viewable Mammal Species at the Natural Salt-licks in Segaliud-Lokan Forest Reserve, Sabah

An Update on the Viewable Mammal Species at the Natural Salt-licks in Segaliud-Lokan Forest Reserve, Sabah

Application of Environmental DNA (eDNA) Metabarcoding Method to Identify Threatened Sulawesi Mammal Based on 12S rRNA Gene

Species detection and identification is a crucial steps in biodiversity assessment. Traditional methods are often invasive and resource intensive. The number of studies demonstrating successful of eDNA metabarcoding approach in species identification has increased rapidly in recent years. Some of large terrestrial mammals have reportedly utilize natural salt licks as a source of minerals in the diet and its genetic material left in the environment can be used to identify species from this site. An eDNA metabarcoding protocol had been carried out to identify Sulawesi mammals from Adudu natural salt-licks, Nantu Wildlife Reserve, Gorontalo. Environmental DNA were extracted from water samples, Amplicon libraries were prepared by PCR amplification and Illumina MiSeq high throughput sequencing. Reads processing and taxonomic assignment carried out in two bioinformatics packages, PipeCraft-1.0 and OBITools-2.11. Two endangered Sulawesi mammals species had been identified, i.e. lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa). The accuracy of mammal species identification using eDNA metabarcoding is affected by rigorous experimental procedures, DNA marker reliability, and availability of reference sequence database.

Impact of natural salt lick on the home range of Panthera tigris at the Royal Belum Rainforest, Malaysia

Natural salt lick (sira) is a strategic localisation for ecological wildlife assemblage to exhibit geophagy which may act as a population dynamic buffer of prey and predators. Undoubtedly, many agree that geophagy at natural licks is linked to nutritional ecology, health and assembly places facilitating social interaction of its users. Overall, natural salt licks not only save energy of obtaining nutrient leading to health maintenance but also forms the basis of population persistence. The Royal Belum Rainforest, Malaysia (Royal Belum) is a typical tropical rainforest in Malaysia rich in wildlife which are mainly concentrated around the natural salt lick. Since this is one of the most stable fauna ecology forest in Malaysia, it is timely to assess its impact on the Malayan tiger (Panthera tigris) home range dynamics. The three-potential home ranges of the Malayan tiger in this rainforest were selected based on animal trails or foot prints surrounding the salt lick viz (e.g. Sira Kuak and Sira Batu; Sira Rambai and Sira Buluh and Sira Papan) as well as previous sightings of a Malayan tiger in the area, whose movement is dependent on the density and distribution of prey. Camera traps were placed at potential animal trails surrounding the salt lick to capture any encountered wildlife species within the area of the camera placements. Results showed that all home ranges of Malayan tiger were of no significance for large bodied prey availability such as sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), and smaller prey such as muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjac) and wild boar (Sus scrofa). Interestingly, all home range harbour the Malayan tiger as the only sole predator. The non-significance of prey availability at each home range is attributed to the decline of the Malayan tiger in the rainforest since tigers are dependant on the movement of its preferred prey surrounding natural salt licks. Thus, the information from this study offers fundamental knowledge on the importance of prey-predator interaction at salt lick which will help in designing strategy in rewilding or rehabilitation programs of the Malayan tiger at the Royal Belum Rainforest.

Mineral Composition and Behaviour of Mammals at Natural Saltlicks in Jomotsangkha Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhutan

Natural saltlicks are used by mammal species mainly to supplement mineral deficiency playing critical role in animal ecology. There is information gap on the use of natural saltlicks by mammals in Bhutan. Nine natural saltlicks from Jomotsangkha Wildlife Sanctuary were purposively selected to fill this gap of information. The study aimed to assess mineral composition and ecological behaviour of mammals at natural saltlicks. Nine composite soil samples were randomly collected and nine camera traps were set up at nine saltlicks for a duration of 56 days from 2 January to 28 February, 2019. Data management and analysis were carried out using camerabase and R software. Potassium, phosphorus and sodium elements were found in the saltlicks. Camera traps yielded 419 independent events of 12 species under 10 families. Herbivores were most common (n = 390) and non-herbivores the least (n = 12). Wild dog was also captured licking salts (n = 1) which is least reported across the world. Mineral composition (r = 0.70, p &lt; .05) and anthropogenic activities (r = 0.60, p &lt; .05) were key factors affecting the visitation rate and ecological behaviour of mammal species. Disturbed saltlicks from Samdrupcholing Range revealed fewer individuals of mammals (n = 71) with disturbed ecological behaviour while undisturbed saltlicks from Jomotsangkha Range revealed higher individuals of mammals (n = 340) with undisturbed ecological behaviour. Therefore, anthropogenic activities at disturbed saltlicks call for planned monitoring.

Physical factors at salt licks influenced the frequency of wildlife visitation in the Malaysian tropical rainforest

Mineral reservoirs or salt licks are commonly used by wildlife to regulate the concentration of salt and minerals in their bodies. Salt lick utilisation is known to be influenced by the chemical composition, but information on their physical properties, particularly vegetation surrounding the salt licks is scarce. In this study, physical factors and wildlife utilisation at two natural salt licks (SPU and SPS) located in Perak, Malaysia, were determined. Wildlife visitation data were retrieved from camera traps. SPU exhibits two reservoirs represented by rocky and clay substrate, with minimally dense vegetation dominated by hardwood species and climbers. SPS encompasses muddy topsoil, open canopy cover, with highly dense forest floor vegetation. The wildlife survey shows a higher frequency of visitation in SPS, especially by ungulates, potentially due to dense understorey foliage that provides foraging sites for these animals. SPU exhibits more diverse but less frequent wildlife species, particularly primates, carnivores, and avian groups. High emergence and closed canopy cover at this lick serve as perching sites for primates and birds, while less dense understory vegetation could aid in prey detection among carnivore. Regardless of their physical assemblages, salt licks are an essential local hotspot for wildlife, therefore, elucidating the need to prioritise conservation areas by maximising the complementarities of salt licks.

Feasibility of Natural Salt-licks for Wildlife-Watching in Segaliud-Lokan Forest Reserve, Sandakan, Sabah

Natural salt-licks are well-recognized as wildlife-watching hotspots that can provide visitors with high opportunities for sighting many different outstanding mammals at close-range. Various natural salt-licks were discovered throughout Segaliud-Lokan Forest Reserve (SLFR), but then the physical availability of local mammals at given licks were yet to be examined scientifically by past researchers. Henceforth, this study intended to investigate mammal species that were available for wildlife-viewing at the licks in SLFR. Four natural wet licks that were accessible from the main road and situated close to Sungai Rawog were selected as sampling areas to identify mammal species that visited given licks across different times through camera trapping survey. A total of 676 independent sightings of 12 different mammal species were recorded in 197 trap nights, especially at SL59 and during night-time. Sighted mammal individuals were mainly comprised of large-sized, threatened and non-carnivorous species, where Sambar Deer, Bearded Pig, Orang-utan, and Banteng were identified as the top 4 mammal species that were detected frequently at the licks in SLFR. In sum, it is feasible to conduct wildlife-viewing activity at the licks in SLFR, although further research is required to investigate the actual sighting probability and viewing duration of different mammal species by visitors at given licks and across different times or seasons.

Registros de mamíferos terrestres en un salado natural del Resguardo Indígena Nonuya-Villazul departamento del Amazonas, Colombia

Los salados naturales son lugares con altas concentraciones de minerales y arcillas, donde diversas especies realizan geofagia; en esta nota se presentan registros de cuatro especies de mamíferos terrestres, en un transecto lineal ubicado en un salado en la cuenca media del río Caquetá dentro del Resguardo Indígena Nonuya Villazul. Se utilizaron cuatro cámaras trampa, con un esfuerzo de muestreo de 136 días/trampa; la especie más frecuente fue Cuniculus paca, la cual junto con Dasyprocta fuliginosa y Pecari tajacu, además de realizar geofagia, presentan una dieta mayormente frugívora, mientras que Myrmecophaga tridactyla consume insectos y fue registrada en la cámara más distante del salado. Los salados naturales son lugares de importancia ecológica y de conservación, ya que en ellos converge una alta diversidad de mamíferos principalmente herbívoros, no obstante, para entender las características fisicoquímicas de hábitat, paisaje y antrópicas influyen sobre la presencia o abundancia de estas especies; es necesario realizar estudios con mayor esfuerzo de muestreo en la Amazonía colombiana.

Comparative Characteristics of the Geophagic Activity of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus L., 1758, Cervidae, Artiodactyla) in Yakutia in the Native and Invasive Parts of Its Range

Red deer (Cervus elaphus L., 1758) geophagia has been recorded using camera traps on five natural salt licks in Yakutia: the native part (two salt licks) and the expansion zone of its range (three salt licks). A chemical analysis has revealed that the content of most chemical elements is richer in animal solonetzic soils in the native part of the range than in soils of the invasive part. In total, 295 camera trap days were conducted. A total of 238 single and group visits of salt licks were recorded over this period. The stay of 300 red deer on salt licks, including repeat visits of the same individuals, was recorded. The identification of individuals by age and sex revealed only 55 individuals: 28 males and 27 females. The maximum number of deer in simultaneous geophagia was five individuals. The average duration of red deer geophagia (M ± m) was 13.8 ± 1.4 min (limit 1–98; n = 232). The duration of geophagia was 1.5 times longer in the invasive part of their range than in the native part. The intense visiting of salt licks by deer was registered in the darkest time of day, i.e., from 00:00 to 04:00, while the lowest number of visits was observed at sunset, i.e., from 20:00 to 00:00. The visitation of salt licks by months is higher in May–June and decreases from July. The sex ratio of individuals that visited the salt licks was 50.9% males and 49.1% females.

Movement behavior of a tropical mammal: The case of Tapirus terrestris

Animal movement characteristics are not species-specific traits, but rather individual features that respond to various selective pressures. To understand patterns of animal movements, it is especially important to explore how they are affected by differences in landscape and habitat configuration. This paper presents an analysis of the movement patterns of a species of conservation concern in Northwest Amazon, the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), in relation to landscape elements identified as resource concentration areas (palm stands and natural salt licks). We identify the structure of the movement behavior of a sub-adult male lowland tapir using Behavioral Change Point Analysis (BCPA) and a set of metrics capturing velocity and variance. We also estimate this tapir’s Utilization Distribution (UD) using the dynamic Brownian Bridge Movement Model (dBBMM) in order to better understand its trajectories and space-use patterns. Our results provide insights about this animal’s movement, making it possible to differentiate between foraging behaviors, characterized by long trips and selective resource use, and explorative behaviors, characterized by short displacements and a notable decrease in the usage of resource areas and its trajectories. The high influence of landscape elements on movement characteristics suggest that tapirs may perceive the Amazonian forest as heterogeneous rather than homogeneous mosaics. Therefore, the study of movement characteristics proves to be useful for the development of future studies and conservation plans.

Tropical-forest mammals as detected by environmental DNA at natural saltlicks in Borneo

Although tropical forests are among the most species-rich ecosystems on earth, 42% of mammal species in tropical forests are endangered because of overhunting and/or unsustainable exploitation. Camera-trap surveys have shown that natural saltlicks can be used to determine mammalian fauna, especially medium to large endangered species in tropical forests; establishment of camera traps, however, is time and effort intensive. Furthermore, the photographic range and detectable size of species are often restricted. Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding is a powerful approach that might provide a better way to study terrestrial animals in tropical forests. In this study, we examined whether eDNA from natural saltlicks comprehensively represented species composition in a Bornean tropical forest. We collected 100–150-mL water samples from natural saltlicks in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. We constructed amplicon libraries for MiSeq sequencing using eDNA extracted from the water samples. Six endangered species were detected using this method, including Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), Bornean banteng (Bos javanicus lowi), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) and bearded pig (Sus barbatus). However, most small and minor species were not detected, with low sequence identity (80–96%). Therefore, we propose that more species of tropical forest mammals should have their sequences deposited in DNA databases. This study is the first to report the endangered mammals of a tropical forest detected using eDNA from natural saltlicks.

Characteristics of natural salt licks located in the Colombian Amazon foothills

Salt licks are key places for the ecological dynamics of wildlife communities around the world and are locations where animals develop geophagical behaviours. Geophagy is a method for animals to supplement their diets or facilitate their digestive processes and is related to the health of individuals and populations. This study characterises a series of salt licks located in the Colombian Amazon foothills and describes their structural, mineralogical and physicochemical properties, as well as the fauna that visit these locations. The results are analysed in reference to the geological characteristics of the study area and in relation to the role of the salt lick in the nutritional ecology of the Amazonian fauna. Located in the study area are two types of salt licks that are significantly different in composition. These salt licks are located in an area where young geological materials have been exposed. The characteristics of the salt licks supports the hypothesis that they are used to solve nutritional problems that result from herbivorous diets. The clear importance of salt licks in the ecology of several Amazonian animal species emphasises the need to prioritise conservation areas by maximising the complementarities of salt lick sites.

Analysis in the Concentration, Determination and Comparison of some Mineral Elements in the Natural Salt-Licks Utilized by Elephants: Mt. Elgon National Park Case Study

The aim of the study undertaken at Mt. Elgon National Park was to determine the chemical composition and variation of some mineral elements in saltlicks utilized by elephants in Mt. Elgon National Park. Laboratory analysis was done for individual identification and determination of the concentration for sodium potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. Rock samples were processed using Double Acid Technique. The elephants of Mt. Elgon have been engaging in earth eating behaviour. regular visits to saltlicks located in caves is as a result of some of the mineral elements such as sodium potassium and calcium. The park management could overcome the problem of elephants entering the saltlicks by having sodium and potassium mineral supplement policy for the park.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LICK SOILS: FUNCTIONS OF SOIL INGESTION BY FOUR UNGULATE SPECIES

Perspectives on the importance of natural salt licks to ungulates have been broadened beyond the role of providing sodium. This study examined the chemical compositions of wet and dry licks in north-central British Columbia, and defined the benefits of licks to elk (Cervus elaphus), moose (Alces alces), Stone’s sheep (Ovis dalli stonei), and mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus). We analyzed soils for buffering compounds (carbonates) and estimated available elements from extractions with solutions at a low, digestive-tract pH. Even though the 2 types of licks are visually distinct, with different concentrations of chemical components, they serve similar functions as concentrated sources of sodium, carbonates, magnesium, and sulfate. Sodium and sulfate concentrations were typically higher at both wet and dry licks than control sites. Carbonates and magnesium were elevated in soils from dry licks and magnesium also was high in inflow waters to wet licks. We estimated elemental intake by ungulates from the composition of forage samples. Forages used by all 4 ungulate species were too low in sodium to meet requirements. Spring and summer forages contained high potassium levels. Licks in our study, therefore, provide ungulates with supplemental sources of sodium that are particularly beneficial to offset increasing demands during lactation and with carbonates to help stabilize rumen pH after forage changes in spring. Supplemental sources of magnesium may be actively sought by ungulates when high levels of dietary potassium affect absorption. To assess the importance of clay in soils ingested at licks, we determined the clay mineral types at licks and compared the buffering capacity of clay-filled fecal material collected at licks with fecal material collected away from licks. Further studies are needed to define the roles of clay in improving forage palatability and digestibility.