Natural History Traits Research Articles

Crabs as snake predators? An observation from southern Italy leading to a comprehensive review

The recent elevation of the Western Grass Snake, Natrix helvetica, from subspecies status prompted an assessment of its natural history and ecological traits compared to closely related species. We report an unusual predation attempt by the freshwater crab Potamon fluviatile on N. helvetica sicula from Sicily, indicating an ecological interaction previously overlooked in this species. The observation suggests that this crab may utilise snakes’ muscle tissue as an additional nutrient source. This predator-prey interaction, although probably rare, adds to the understanding of the dynamics between crabs and snakes, shedding light on their interaction in freshwater habitats. To provide context for our observation and highlight its rarity, we searched through scientific literature and online sources to generate a comprehensive review of the phenomenon that examines the predatory behaviour of crabs on snakes.

Quantifying How Natural History Traits Contribute to Bias in Community Science Engagement: A Case Study Using Orbweaver Spiders

Online citizen science platforms can be crucial to the scientific and regulatory community, but inherent biases based on organism traits can influence the likelihood of a species being reported and accurately identified. We explored how traits of orb weaving spiders impact data in iNaturalist, using the invasive Jorō spider as a case study. This species is an outlier among orbweavers due to its large size and bright coloration, and was the most frequently reported species, with the most identifications and research-grade observations. It was also reported by less experienced users on average, highlighting its potential role as a gateway species into community science participation. This bias towards large, flashy orbweaver species suggests underrepresentation of smaller, drab species. Given the increasing importance of open access digital biodiversity records, we encourage researchers to engage more with the iNaturalist community and contribute their expertise in improving the data quality wherever possible.

Machine learning and phylogenetic models identify predictors of genetic variation in Neotropical amphibians

AbstractAimIntraspecific genetic variation is key for adaptation and survival in changing environments and is known to be influenced by many factors, including population size, dispersal and life‐history traits. We investigated genetic variation within Neotropical amphibian species to provide insights into how natural history traits, phylogenetic relatedness, climatic and geographic characteristics can explain intraspecific genetic diversity.LocationNeotropics.TaxonAmphibians.MethodsWe assembled data sets using open‐access databases for natural history traits, genetic sequences, phylogenetic trees, climatic and geographic data. For each species, we calculated overall nucleotide diversity (π) and tested for isolation by distance (IBD) and isolation by environment (IBE). We then identified predictors of π, IBD and IBE using random forest (RF) regression or RF classification. We also fitted phylogenetic generalized linear mixed models (PGLMMs) to predict π, IBD and IBE.ResultsWe compiled 4052 mitochondrial DNA sequences from 256 amphibian species (230 frogs and 26 salamanders), georeferencing 2477 sequences from 176 species that were not linked to occurrence data. RF regressions and PGLMMs were congruent in identifying range size and precipitation (σ) as the most important predictors of π, influencing it positively. RF classification and PGLMMs identified minimum elevation as an important predictor of IBD; most species without IBD tended to occur at higher elevations. Maximum latitude and precipitation (σ) were the best predictors of IBE, and most species without IBE occur at lower latitudes and in areas with more variable precipitation.Main ConclusionsThis study identified predictors of genetic variation in Neotropical amphibians using both machine learning and phylogenetic methods. This approach was valuable to determine which predictors were congruent between methods. We found that species with small ranges or living in zones with less variable precipitation tended to have low genetic diversity. We also showed that Western Mesoamerica, Andes and Atlantic Forest biogeographic units harbour high diversity across many species that should be prioritized for protection. These results could play a key role in the development of conservation strategies for Neotropical amphibians.

The debris-cloaking larva of Catapotia laevissima and the origin of defensive strategies in Anamorphidae and other Coccinelloidea (Coleoptera)

Debris-cloaking, a method of concealment with material collected from the environment, has evolved repeatedly with the purpose of avoiding detection in adults or immatures of various invertebrates including beetles. Fungus beetles in the family Anamorphidae (Coccinelloidea) are small-sized spore feeders of predominantly surface-dwelling habits. Debris-cloaking has been reported only for two genera in the family and nowhere else in Coccinelloidea. Here we report debris-cloaking behaviour in larvae of the Neotropical beetle genus Catapotia, describe its larvae, and compare it to confamilials. We summarise the knowledge on the defensive mechanisms and the natural history traits for members of the coccinellid group of Coccinelloidea. Possible evolutionary origins for the defensive mechanism are reconstructed on the basis of available phylogenetic hypotheses. Groups containing species with a larger body size also have a higher number of defensive strategies in larvae and adults; these include members of Endomychidae and Coccinellidae that exhibit reflex bleeding, aposematic colouration, and gregarious behaviour. Debris-cloaking has likely evolved only once, in the comparatively small-sized Anamorphidae.

Microchromosome fusions underpin convergent evolution of chameleon karyotypes.

Evolutionary shifts in chromosome compositions (karyotypes) are major drivers of lineage and genomic diversification. Fusion of ancestral chromosomes is one hypothesized mechanism for the evolutionary reduction of the total chromosome number, a frequently implied karyotypic shift. Empirical tests of this hypothesis require model systems with variable karyotypes, known chromosome features, and a robust phylogeny. Here we used chameleons, diverse lizards with exceptionally variable karyotypes ($2n=20\text{-}62$), to test whether chromosomal fusions explain the repeated evolution of karyotypes with fewer chromosomes than ancestral karyotypes. Using a multidisciplinary approach including cytogenetic analyses and phylogenetic comparative methods, we found that a model of constant loss through time best explained chromosome evolution across the chameleon phylogeny. Next, we tested whether fusions of microchromosomes into macrochromosomes explained these evolutionary losses using generalized linear models. Multiple comparisons supported microchromosome fusions as the predominant agent of evolutionary loss. We further compared our results to various natural history traits and found no correlations. As such, we infer that the tendency of microchromosomes to fuse was a quality of the ancestral chameleon genome and that the genomic predisposition of ancestors is a more substantive predictor of chromosome change than the ecological, physiological, and biogeographical factors involved in their diversification.

Contribution of genetic analyses to semi‐natural grassland biodiversity conservation in Japan

AbstractSemi‐natural grasslands maintained by moderate anthropogenic disturbance have been rapidly declining worldwide in recent decades, resulting in the progressive degradation of biodiversity therein. Similarly, in Japan, many semi‐natural grassland organisms are threatened with extinction owing to the decline of semi‐natural grasslands, and their conservation and management has attracted considerable attention. Although ecological studies using genetic information are expected to contribute to the conservation of semi‐natural grassland organisms, no reviews have been conducted on the potential roles of these studies in grassland conservation in Japan. Here, we review the current trends in conservation‐ecological study on Japanese semi‐natural grassland organisms using genetic information by grouping into five categories: (1) monitoring of genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure, (2) exploration of the genetic consequences of management practices, (3) prevention of genetic disturbance, (4) elucidation of natural history traits, and (5) estimation of the origin and demography. Furthermore, the applicability of studies using high‐throughput sequencing, which has been rapidly progressing in recent years, is highlighted. This review provides the methods and perspectives on the use of genetic information to conserve biodiversity in semi‐natural grasslands.

Genetically derived effective population size estimates of herpetofaunal species should be used with caution

AbstractEffective population size (NE) is an important parameter for conservation of threatened wildlife. Current estimators of NE that use genetic data, however, may not be equally useful among taxa that are difficult to sample, such as cryptic, iteroparous, long‐lived herpetofauna. To better understand the use of NE estimators for such taxa, we generated and compared contemporary NE estimates to evaluate methods, repeatability, and the effects of sample size at management scales and functional genetic population scales for the eastern box turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) and eastern hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis). We chose these 2 species for their differing dispersal abilities, reproductive variances, and natural history traits, which may be useful in exploring the weaknesses and strengths of NE estimators. We collected species‐specific microsatellite genotypes from 2,712 individuals (1,133 hellbenders, 1,579 box turtles) in 2007–2011 from across their ranges in the eastern United States. We then grouped samples into range‐wide genetic clusters, state‐level management populations, and small regional management populations (e.g., state parks). We also randomly subsampled (rarefied) from these 3 categories to explore the effects of reduced sampling effort on NE estimates. We used 4 popular estimators: NEESTIMATOR (linkage disequilibrium and heterozygote excess methods), LDNE, and ONESAMP. Over half of all attempts at estimating NE failed to give complete estimates (those that included only non‐negative and non‐infinity values). There was variation between species but also among estimators. Repeated sampling of genetic populations resulted in inconsistent results, and estimates generally increased with sample size. The linkage disequilibrium version of NEESTIMATOR returned the largest percentage (95.8%) of complete estimates. Program ONESAMP obtained complete estimates for 62.0% of attempts and generally provided the numerically largest estimates. Only 19.4% of LDNE estimates and none of the heterozygote excess version of NEESTIMATOR estimates were complete. Generally, NE estimates were higher for box turtles, perhaps because of their greater dispersal capabilities, historically larger populations, and longer lifespans. Our results suggest that estimates of NE for long‐lived herpetofauna species vary according to species, sample size, genetic cluster, management population, and estimator used. Therefore, we recommend managers of populations of long‐lived herpetofaunal species use NE estimators with caution, and consider results from multiple methods before incorporating NE into management practice.

Is It in the Stars? Exploring the Relationships between Species' Traits and Sea Star Wasting Disease.

AbstractAn explanation for variation in impacts of sea star wasting disease across asteroid species remains elusive. Although various traits have been suggested to play a potential role in sea star wasting susceptibility, currently we lack a thorough comparison that explores how life-history and natural history traits shape responses to mass mortality across diverse asteroid taxa. To explore how asteroid traits may relate to sea star wasting, using available data and recognizing the potential for biological correlations to be driven by phylogeny, we generated a supertree, tested traits for phylogenetic association, and evaluated associations between traits and sea star wasting impact. Our analyses show no evidence for a phylogenetic association with sea star wasting impact, but there does appear to be phylogenetic association for a subset of asteroid life-history traits, including diet, substrate, and reproductive season. We found no relationship between sea star wasting and developmental mode, diet, pelagic larval duration, or substrate but did find a relationship with minimum depth, reproductive season, and rugosity (or surface complexity). Species with the greatest sea star wasting impacts tend to have shallower minimum depth distributions, they tend to have their median reproductive period 1.5 months earlier, and they tend to have higher rugosities relative to species less affected by sea star wasting. Fully understanding sea star wasting remains challenging, in part because dramatic gaps still exist in our understanding of the basic biology and phylogeny of asteroids. Future studies would benefit from a more robust phylogenetic understanding of sea stars, as well as leveraging intra- and interspecific comparative transcriptomics and genomics to elucidate the molecular pathways responding to sea star wasting.

Species delineation and genetic structure of two Chaerephon species (C. pusillus and C. leucogaster) on Madagascar and the Comoro archipelago.

Cryptic species diversity is known to be common in bats but remains challenging to study in these mammals, whose natural history traits render their sampling and monitoring challenging. For these animals, indirect genetic approaches provide a powerful tool to gain insight into the evolutionary history and ecology of cryptic bat species. The speciation history of the polyphyletic Chaerephon pumilus species group (Molossidae) is poorly understood, including those found on western Indian Ocean islands. Two species in this complex have been identified in the Comoros: C. pusillus and C. leucogaster. Here, we aim to genetically characterize these two species and investigate their spatial population genetic structure. Analyzing five nuclear microsatellite markers from 200 individuals and one mitochondrial DNA gene (Cyt-b) from 161 (out of the 200) individuals sampled on Madagascar and the Comoros, our findings indicated that these species are genetically differentiated. We observed mitonuclear discordance in numerous individuals (33% of the 161 mtDNA-sequenced individuals). Based on ABC analyses, we found that this pattern could potentially be the result of asymmetric introgressive hybridization from C. leucogaster to C. pusillus and calls for further studies on the demographic history of these species. Moreover, at the intra-specific level, analyses of the microsatellite loci suggested the evidence of a more pronounced, although weak, geographically based genetic structure in C. pusillus than in C. leucogaster. Altogether, our findings provide preliminary insights into the eco-evolutionary aspects of this species complex and warrant further research to understand hybridization dynamics and mechanisms responsible for mitonuclear discordance.

Going Underground: What the Natural History Traits of Cave Users Can Tell Us about Cave Use Propensity

Amphibians and reptiles use caves in different lithologies and biomes. However, the ecological reasons for such behavior have so far not been investigated in a broad scale. We surveyed 945 Brazilian caves in three biomes (Caatinga, Cerrado, and the Amazon), from which 269 had frogs and reptiles. We classified species of amphibians (34) and reptiles (19) according to natural history traits including habit, activity, diet composition, foraging strategy, and developmental mode (anurans). We used IUCN species distribution maps to predict what species occur in the vicinities of the caves but did not use them to test whether specific life history traits were distributed differently between species using and not using caves. We also tested seasonality and occurrence of bodies of water inside caves used by anurans, as well as the area occupied by man-made building and infrastructure around caves as explanatory factors for cave use intensity. Anurans with direct development were more likely to use caves than those with a tadpole stage. Terrestrial anurans were more likely to use caves than arboreal and semiarboreal anurans. No fossorial, semifossorial, or semiaquatic species used caves. Among reptiles, sit-and-wait foragers were more likely to use caves than active foragers. Semiaquatic and terrestrial reptiles were the most likely to use caves. Anurans were most likely to use caves with perennial bodies of water and during the dry season. Our results indicate that species of the herpetofauna are likely to search for resources in the cave habitat as indicated by the relationship between specific life history traits and cave use.

Genetic structure in neotropical birds with different tolerance to urbanization

Gene flow in birds can be affected by urbanization depending on natural history traits and adaptability to habitat change. Contrasting results can be expected when comparing species with opposite resilience to urbanization. In this study, we assessed genetic diversity and structure for two bird species, the urban avoider white-eared ground-sparrow, Melozone leucotis, and the urban dweller house wren Troglodytes aedon. We used seven microsatellite loci and sampled five locations with differing levels of urbanization in Costa Rica. We found considerably higher genetic structure in white-eared ground-sparrows than in house wrens. Circuit theory analyses proved a higher isolation from urban resistance for the white-eared ground-sparrow than for house wrens. These results support that urbanization is a significant barrier for gene flow in urban avoiders, in contrast to urban dweller species that showed little to no impact. Differences could be attributed to a higher plasticity in habitat and nesting site preferences in the house wren, and significant dispersal limitation for the white-eared ground-sparrow. These results emphasize the need for conservation strategies towards white-eared ground-sparrows and other urban avoider species whose habitat and connectivity have been reduced by the recent urban expansion.

DIMORFISMO SEXUAL, REPRODUCCIÓN Y BIOLOGÍA ALIMENTARIA DE Helicops angulatus (LINNAEUS, 1758) (COLUBRIDAE: HYDROPSINI) EN LA AMAZONIA ORIENTAL, BRASIL

We described natural history traits of the brown-banded water snake Helicops angulatus from Eastern Brazilian Amazon, one of the most threatened areas in Amazonia. We recorded morphometric information, feeding habits, and reproductive strategies from 97 mature females, 58 mature males, and 40 juveniles. Females are larger than males, although males have longer tail length. Females and males mature at different sizes, with males becoming mature at smaller sizes. We observed the presence of follicles and secondary eggs throughout the year. However, we found two reproductive peaks, in July and October, corresponding to the dry season in the Amazon region. Diet consists mainly of fishes, followed by frogs that use water bodies for reproduction. Most prey were ingested headfirst (82.35%), possibly to decrease risk of injuries during the capture and ingestion. We found a positive relationship between total length of the prey and snout-vent length of snakes. Compared to other species, H. angulatus ingests proportionally larger prey (22-44% of the snout-vent length of snakes), probably optimizing energy gain.

For neither heat nor water conservation: Body size variation in Atlantic Forest frogs does not follow a general mechanism

AbstractAimAnimal body size is recurrently associated with climate. Bergmann's rule proposes that larger endotherms inhabit higher latitudes because higher latitudes are generally colder, and larger body sizes promote heat conservation. However, body size variation of ectotherms has been associated with other climatic variables as anurans in drier environments reach larger sizes for water conservation. We tested whether body size variation of anuran amphibians can be explained by the heat conservation or water conservation hypotheses.LocationBrazilian Atlantic Forest.TaxonAnuran amphibians.MethodsWe selected anurans from different phylogenetic groups. The size was defined by snout‐vent length (SVL) and stoutness. We implemented spatial regressions including morphological dimensions and variables describing temperature and water availability.ResultsOnlyHaddadus binotatushad SVL size negatively associated with temperature, in accordance with the heat conservation hypothesis (HCH).Itapotihyla langsdorffiihad SVL positively associated with temperature, contrary to the HCH.Cycloramphus eleutherodactylushad SVL negatively associated with potential evapotranspiration, in accordance with the water conservation hypothesis (WCH).Thoropa miliaris+T. taophoraandIschnocnema guentherishowed no associations between SVL and climate. Stoutness was poorly associated with climate, with a negative relationship found only inRhinella crucifer+R. ornatain accordance with the WCH.Main conclusionsThe heat conservation and water conservation hypotheses do not offer general explanations for the body size variation in anurans from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Natural history, functional and ecological traits are more likely to affect anuran body size and they should be considered in posterior analyses.

Social predation by ants as a mortality source for an arboreal gregarious forest pest

Biocontrol of caterpillars by ants is highly variable, and we investigate how the strength of the trophic relationship between ants and an important outbreaking forest pest depends on phenological synchrony and on social foraging. We test the hypothesis that early spring foraging by ants, coupled with eusocial recruitment behavior, could undermine the caterpillar's strategies to achieve either enemy-free space or predator satiation.We use a series of field surveys and experiments in trembling aspen stands (Populus tremuloides) in the boreal forest of eastern Canada to assess the role of ants in early-instar mortality of the outbreaking, gregarious forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria). We also investigate individual-level mechanisms related to phenology and social behavior that underlie the effectiveness of ants as biocontrol on caterpillars. Our results show that ants climb trees early in the spring and harvest young forest tent caterpillars, suggesting that early phenology does not provide an entirely enemy-free space for caterpillars. Our findings further show that recruitment-based social foraging enables ants to deplete groups of gregarious prey, suggesting that these eusocial insects are particularly effective at generating predation pressure on gregarious herbivores since they do not satiate easily. Finally, a manipulative predator exclusion experiment confirms that ant predation is a significant mortality source for early-instar forest tent caterpillars. Taken together, these results suggest that phenology and sociality could modulate the role of ants as effective caterpillar predators and thus showcase the importance of considering natural history and behavioral traits when studying trophic interactions and their role in population dynamics.

Vulture Abundance and Habitat Association Following Major Hurricane Disturbance in the Tropical Dry Forest of Western Mexico

Scavenger birds are common species frequently associated with open habitats, but sympatric vulture species have differing natural history traits that may influence seasonal habitat relationships and responses to natural disturbances, such as hurricanes. We evaluated seasonality and habitat relationships of Black Vultures (Coragyps atratus) and Turkey Vultures (Cathartes aura) at sites within and outside the path of maximum winds of Hurricane Patricia in western Mexico. We used 1.5-km line transects to survey vultures during dry and rainy seasons in four habitats of the tropical dry forest biome over a 2-yr period after hurricane landfall. We measured habitat structure along each transect using the point-centered quarter method, and determined landscape composition within a 3000-ha circular plot centered around the midpoint of each transect. Vulture abundance was influenced by habitat structure variables of open areas, but at sites affected by hurricane disturbance vulture abundance was positively associated with increased cover of wetlands and agricultural land. Both species of vultures had low abundance in forests, and Black Vultures had significantly higher abundance in agricultural land and wetlands. Season significantly influenced vulture abundance by habitat: agricultural land and wetlands had higher vulture abundance in the rainy season, but forests had higher abundance in the dry season. Disturbance by a major hurricane induced species-specific changes in spatial-temporal abundance of vultures: the Black Vulture in particular had higher abundance in all habitats except wetlands during the dry season, and greater abundance in the first months after hurricane landfall. Hence, although vultures occur predominantly in open areas, they show species-specific habitat associations and responses to hurricane disturbance.

The role of body size in nest‐site selection by secondary cavity‐nesting birds in a subtropical Chaco forest

Most bird species that nest in tree cavities globally occur in diverse assemblages in little‐studied tropical and subtropical forests which have high rates of habitat loss. Conservation of these communities will require an understanding of how species traits, such as body size, influence nest‐site selection. We examined patterns of nest‐site selection of secondary cavity‐nesting birds at the nest patch, tree and cavity scale, and investigated how these patterns are influenced by body size. Using conditional logistic regression, we compared characteristics of 155 nest tree cavities paired with 155 unused tree cavities in quebracho Schinopsis balansae forests in Chaco National Park, Argentina (2016–2018). The odds of a cavity being used for nesting increased with its depth and height above ground, decreased with entrance size, and were greater for dead trees than live. Small‐bodied (13–90 g) species used floor diameters in proportion to availability, but medium‐ (150–200 g) and large‐bodied (400–700 g) species selected cavities with larger floors. Model selection indicated that characteristics at the nest patch scale (canopy cover, tree density) had little effect on nest‐site selection when cavity‐scale variables were included. Cavity floor diameter, entrance size, cavity height and tree diameter (but not cavity depth) increased with body mass, and larger bird species more often used live trees. Two tree species proved to be key for the community: large and medium‐sized birds used almost exclusively large live Schinopsis balansae, whereas small birds used live and dead Prosopis spp. in a proportion greater than its availability. Small birds could be differentiated according to species‐specific cavity characteristics, but medium and large species overlapped considerably with one another. Although body mass explained much of the overall variation in tree and cavity characteristics between small and medium/large species, several small‐bodied species consistently used cavities outside of the expected characteristics for their body size, suggesting that other natural history traits may play important roles in nest‐site selection by small‐bodied birds. To retain the full suite of secondary cavity‐nesters in species‐rich tropical and subtropical forests, it is necessary to conserve a diversity of trees and cavities that meet the full range of nesting requirements of these trait‐diverse communities.

Living in a cold tropical mountain: do the microhabitat use and activity pattern change with elevation in the high-Andean lizard Stenocercus trachycephalus (Squamata: Tropiduridae)?

The high mountain environment is a tough habitat that imposes many challenges to reptiles. As temperature decreases with altitude and has a dramatic variation throughout the day in the tropical mountains, ectotherms must cope with these harsh conditions. We studied the use of microhabitat and activity patterns of Stenocercus trachycephalus in the eastern Andes mountain range of Colombia. Three localities were sampled across the wide altitudinal distribution of this lizard species, in a range from 2,670 to 3,950 m a.s.l. The initial hypothesis was that these natural history traits would change with altitude but instead, we found that they remained roughly consistent, showing the great plasticity of this species. The results support that this lizard is a microhabitat-generalist using principally herb across the gradient, rarely shifting to specific plants or microhabitats such as rocks depending on availability. Regarding the activity pattern, this species was active throughout the day from 8:00 to 16:00 with a similar pattern along the gradient. Nevertheless, some differences were detected across localities. The activity pattern shifted from bimodal in the lower locality to unimodal in the higher ones. As expected, a correlation between temperature and activity patterns was found in one of the study sites. However, this was not the case for the lower and mid-elevation localities, where there was no correlation between these variables. The mid-elevation study site was the most interesting locality as the use of microhabitat relied virtually just on the herb stratum and the activity was constrained to the morning hours. These findings may be the result of the synergic effects of other ecological variables (weather variability, human impact, predation, population structure, or reproductive season). Our study gives the basis for a better understanding of how behavior (microhabitat choice and hours of activity) of ectotherms can help to counter thermal constraints in the neotropics when facing an altitudinal gradient. Further studies should focus on the thermal biology of this species, considering the influence of anthropic impact on these lizards’ populations.

Infectious Diseases of Eastern Spotted Skunks (Spilogale putorius) within a One Health Framework

Owing to their omnivorous diet, den-site habits, foraging activities, mating behaviors, and other pertinent habitat-use and natural-history traits, Spilogale putorius (Eastern Spotted Skunk [ESS]) are exposed to a wide variety of pathogenic agents. Understanding the diversity of infectious diseases affecting ESS in conjunction with the role this species plays in the disease ecology of these pathogens is crucial not only for devising efficacious management strategies, but also in formulating comprehensive veterinary and public health strategies for combatting zoonotic diseases associated with this species. Herein I review the reported infectious diseases of ESS. I address the implications of these pathogens for current and future population health of the species with reference to the changing dynamics of ESS disease ecology, influenced by increasing habitat fragmentation, exposure to pathogens across the domestic–wildlife interface, fluctuating climatic patterns, antimicrobial-resistant pathogens, and the profusion of immunosuppressant chemicals throughout the environment. Employing a One Health framework to evaluate the role that ESS play in the disease ecology of zoonoses further highlights the interrelationships of ESS health to the health of humans, domestic animals, and other wildlife. The potential for ESS to serve as hosts, “dilutors”, and/or sentinels for zoonoses underscores their importance in public health and provides an opportunity to leverage their potential disease-mitigating attributes for the conservation of ESS aligned with their provision of ecosystem services.

Differences in flight initiation distances between African and Australian birds

Associations between escape behaviours of birds approached by humans and life history traits differ between continents. This suggests environment and history have shaped the evolution of escape at the continental scale. We compared the escape behaviour of birds between eastern Australia (relatively low density and shorter history of human presence) and eastern Africa (high density and substantially longer history of human presence), in relation to life and natural history traits known to influence escape behaviour. We examined associations between flight initiation distance (FID) and life and natural history variables, using phylogenetically controlled analysis and model selection procedures, for 9372 FIDs from 516 bird species. Overall, African birds had shorter FIDs than Australian birds; however, this difference was only observed among nonmigratory (resident) species. Migratory birds showed no continental level differences in FIDs. Across continents, birds in ‘wetland’ and ‘treed’ habitats both had significantly longer FIDs than birds in ‘scrub’ habitats. Diet and social traits (cooperative breeding and flocking) did not significantly influence FID. The relationship between body mass and FID was positive for Australian birds but not so for African birds. This study (1) suggests that resident eastern African birds are more tolerant of humans and (2) supports the contention that some principles regarding escape behaviour of birds might represent universal patterns (e.g. longer FIDs in open wetland habitats), others (e.g. longer FIDs in larger birds) vary geographically or with habituation, perhaps in relation to the history of cohabitation between humans (and other predators) and birds.

Importance of Natural History in Wildlife Rehabilitation

Wildlife rehabilitation is unique in that it not only considers the welfare of wildlife communities but also the welfare of individual animals. One of the main goals of wildlife rehabilitation is to care for sick, injured and orphaned wild animals for the purpose of releasing them back to the wild. Many of the tens of thousands of wild patients rehabilitators treat each year are directly affected by humans; rehabilitation is seen as a way to mitigate that impact. The diversity of species treated is vast and it is important for wildlife rehabilitators and veterinarians to understand not only basic biology but also the natural history of these species. Nutritional requirements, behavior, habitat requirements, and social structure are just a few of the important natural history traits that help an animal survive in the wild. Understanding them will promote healing, reduce stress and facilitate successful rehabilitation.