History Of Natural Sciences Research Articles

Крестьянское население Верхнего и Среднего Подонья по данным переписных книг 1646 и 1678 годов

Introduction. The article is devoted to the peasant population of the Upper and Middle Podonia in the 17th century. For the first time an attempt is made to make an extensive comparative analysis of the dynamics and number of peasants in the second half of the 17th century in such southern Russian counties as Voronezh and Yelets. Methods and materials. The methodological basis of the study is based on the fundamental principles of historical cognition, used in the national historical science in the study of socio-economic processes of society and its structural components: historicism, objectivity and systematicity. To consider the issues related to the peasant population of the south of Russia in the 17th century and its number, we use general scientific, special-historical and interdisciplinary methods, such as descriptive-narrative, historical-genetic (historical), problem-chronological, comparative-historical, statistical methods, modelling. The research was based on the most important mass sources on the history of land ownership and rural population - census books of 1646 and 1678. Results. The author of the article comes to the conclusion that the peasant population during the second half of the 17th century remained the main mass of rural inhabitants of the counties under consideration. Their distribution on the territory of Voronezh and Yelets counties was uneven and often depended on the degree of protection of a village or hamlet from Tatar raids. Conclusion. Despite the fact that the number of peasants was continuously growing, they were still catastrophically insufficient for the intensive development of manorial land ownership, which was necessary for the defence of the district from attacks of nomadic ethnic groups and economic support of the fortress city. This situation inevitably led in the second half of the 17th century to the growth of the single-tenant economy.

Pre-gelation staining expansion microscopy for visualisation of the Plasmodium liver stage.

Fluorescence and light microscopy are important tools in the history of natural science. However, the resolution of microscopes is limited by the diffraction of light. One possible method to circumvent this physical restriction is the recently developed expansion microscopy (ExM). However, the original ultrastructure ExM (U-ExM) protocol is very time-consuming, and some epitopes are lost during the process. In this study, we developed a shortened pre-gelation staining ExM (PS-ExM) protocol and tested it to investigate the Plasmodium liver stage. The protocol presented in this study allows expanding of pre-stained samples, which results in shorter incubation times, better preservation of some epitopes and the advantage that non-expanded controls can be performed alongside using the same staining protocol. The protocol applicability was accessed throughout the Plasmodium liver stage, showing isotropic five-fold expansion. Furthermore, we used PS-ExM to visualise parasite mitochondria as well as the association of lysosomes to the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) as an example of visualising host-pathogen interaction. We are convinced that this new tool will be helpful for a deeper understanding of the biology of the Plasmodium liver stage.

CONTRIBUTION OF ACADEMICIAN M.K. KOZYBAYEV TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL HISTORICAL SCIENCE

The article analyzes the scientific and creative work of academician, scientist-activist Kozybaev Manash Kabashevich, who worked on the formation of national historical science and the creation of a new direction. 1948- 2002. a scientist who worked in the field of historical science. his research was devoted to the study of many new topics. Starting from the history of the national liberation uprisings of the twentieth century, the problem of hunger, collectivization and Aktau was written from a new point of view and was highly appreciated in scientific circles. The study of the researcher's contribution to the development of historical science is based on the principles of objectivity and expertise. In addition, methods of generalization, systematization and textual analysis were used. From the creative heritage of M. Kozybayev, we can judge the political processes of that period, differentiating his works on issues of independence, the nation. The relevance of the article lies in the nature of the disclosure of historiographical analysis and the significance of the research direction.

«Злые годы» после гибели короля Пржемысла Оттокара II в Чехии и регентство Оттона Бранденбургского (1278–1283)

This articlecovers the political events that took place in the Czech Kingdom in the period from 1278 to 1283, which is known as the “Evil Years” by the national historical science of the Czech Republic. The main topic of this study is the difficult accession to the throne of Wenceslas II, due to his early childhood, who became a victim of political intrigues of both his own courtiers and external forces.

Expedition of F.A. Shcherbina to study the Kazakh steppe in the late ХІХ — early ХХ centuries

Today, in the national historical science special attention is paid to the problem of source study. Over the years that had passed since Kazakhstan gained independence, a large number of valuable sources had been published and their scientific analysis had been carried out within the framework of various state programs. This article analyzes the source “The materials on the Kyrgyz (Kazakh) land use...”, collected by the expedition led by F.A. Shcherbina. This interesting source contains valuable information on the history of Kazakhstan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Подготовка управленческой элиты для Британской империи (на примере частной школы Колледж Юнайтед Сервисес)

Introduction. The relevance of the research topic is determined by the fact that it has not been studied in the national historical science. Meanwhile, the experience of training effective managerial personnel in England in the last third of the XIX – early XX centuries seems worthy of study and reflection. The purpose of the paper is to analyze the problem on the case study of the United Services College, its history and biographies of its most prominent graduates. The novelty of the research is determined by the fact that this problem has not been the subject of special research in Russian historiography. Materials and Methods. The sources used for the analyses consist of documents on the history of the school, memoirs of its graduates, Kipling’s novel “Stalky and Co.” based on the writer’s school years, documents of the “Kipling Society”. The following methods were used: narrative, descriptive, comparative. Analysis. The United Services College was founded in 1874 with the aim of providing the sons of military personnel with inexpensive school education and prepare boys to go on to cadet colleges to train for a military career. Mission of the school was to mold “men of action”, to teach patriotism, team spirit, leadership skills. Students were brought up to become practical, efficient, brave and effective leaders. Extra curriculum activities were consistent with these purposes. The rules were strict, physical punishment was an accepted teaching method and bullying was common. The examination oftheUSC graduates’ careers is essential for assessing the effectiveness of students’ preparation for their future services. Results. Despite a rather short history the United Services College provided the country with a large number of military and civil personnel. 468 graduates joined the British Army, nearly all served throughout the Empire. 198 graduates joined the Indian Army, 51 did service in the Royal Navy and associated forces, 308 USC’s graduates worked abroad in civil organizations, often in Colonial Service Some graduates reached high ranks of Admiral or General. During World War I USC’s graduates earned numerous awards and decorations. Many of them including two Generals, died in the war. The careers of the most distinguished USC’s graduates: Kipling and Dunsterville provide an example of the school’s capacity to effectively train boys for the future.

ФУНКЦИИ МВД В СФЕРЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО УПРАВЛЕНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ИМПЕРИИ НАЧАЛА 80-Х – СЕРЕДИНЫ 90-Х ГОДОВ XIX ВЕКА

The purpose of the article is to study the formation of the internal affairs management system of the Russian Empire from 1881 to 1894, which were the years of the reign of Emperor Alexander III. On the base of the analysis of historical sources and legislation of the Russian Empire of this period and national historical science, the author draws conclusions about changes in the structure, powers and functioning of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire and its services and divisions from the death of Emperor Alexander II until 1894. Having characterized the structural changes in the Ministry, the development of the competence of the General and Political Police in the period under review. The adjustment in the first years of the reign of Emperor Alexander III of the monocentric system of public administration under the leadership of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Empire is emphasized. Special attention is paid to the transformations in the structure of the Ministry, including those that included strengthening the competence of the State Police Department with its subsequent reformatting into Police Department. In addition, the article highlights the consequences of the implementation of the Regulation on Measures to Protect Public Order and Public Peace of 1881, expressed in strengthening the close relationship between the General and Political Police in matters of ensuring the regime of enhanced and emergency protection, as well as the application of administrative expul-sion. As a result, the author formulates the main trends in the state approach to the management of internal affairs from the early 1980s until the mid 1990s of the 20th century.

Локальные особенности коммуникации советской власти и казачьего населения Кубани в 1920-1922 гг.: хроника станицы Старонижестеблиевской

The article is devoted to consideration of local features of communication between the Soviet government and the Cossack population of the Kuban in 1920–22 on the example of the chronicle of life of Staronizhesteblievskaya stanitsa. Using traditional methods of system analysis, retrospective and comparative approaches to historical research, the authors have set a task of identifying mechanisms for strengthening Soviet power and organizing its interaction with the population in the Kuban villages. The Cossack population was distinguished by its conservative worldview and for most part participated in the Civil War on the side of the White movement. Identification of features of the relationship between the Soviet authorities and the Cossack population of the Kuban in the early Soviet period (1920–22) is relevant for national historical science, as it shows that repressive vector in the system of communication of victorious political forces with individual ethno-social groups and society as a whole was possible, but not mandatory. The novelty of the research lies in consideration of economic, social, and political processes occurring at the grassroots level of the South of Russia rural society, in a Cossack village. Relying on methodological provisions of microhistoric approach, according to which the objects of scientific analysis are historical events and phenomena at the local level, the authors have analyzed socially significant phenomena in the rural society of Staronizhestebliyevskaya stanitsa, revealing features of the Cossack population integration into the Soviet society. The article introduces into scientific use documents of the village revkom and higher Soviet authorities, which highlight social confrontation within the rural society. They show how the Soviet government searched for and implemented mechanisms of combating the “green” insurgency and sabotage of the prodrazverstka, using preventive arrest, confiscation of property, taking and executing hostages. Having reconstructed the chronicle of life of Staronizhesteblievskaya stanitsa in 1920–22, the authors conclude that the Soviet government set a course for confrontation with the wealthy and middle-class Cossacks in its system of communication with the Cossack population of the Kuban in the early 1920s, designing and testing a repressive model of interaction with those disagreeing with political and economic transformations. The study has been carried out on the basis of materials from the State Archive of the Krasnodar Krai. Its results can be used for comprehensive characterization of the Soviet authorities’ activities in the era of their formation and strengthening (1920–22) and of the Kuban Cossacks adaptation to the new model of state and society.

НАЦІОНАЛЬНА СОБОРНІСТЬ І РЕАЛІЇ СЬОГОДЕННЯ: ДИСКУСІЙНІ АСПЕКТИ

The authors reviewed V. S. Velykochyi’s monograph «National Council and the Ukrainian Revolution of 1914–1923. Historiographic silhouettes». It is clarified what place and what role the concepts of «Ukrainian revolution» and «National unity» play in the scientist’s research, a number of aspects that are under-researched and debatable are outlined, the scientist's contribution to the development of national historical science is characterized.

UKRAINIAN LIBERATION MOVEMENT OF 1920s –1950s IN THE WORKS OF PETRО MIRCHUK AND ZYNOVY KNYSH: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

The views of well-known representatives of the Ukrainian diaspora Petro Mirchuk and Zinovy Knysh on the important problems of the Ukrainian liberation movement of the 1920s –1950s under the leadership of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) are compared. It is emphasized that a great infl uence on the formation of the worldview positions of the researchers had their party affi liation – the fi rst to the Bandera, and the second – to the Melnyk parts of the OUN. Both authors expressed unanimity in their assessments of the birth process of the nationalist movement in their native lands and abroad, unifying tendencies among youth national-patriotic circles, ideological foundations and program provisions of the OUN, etc. Their judgments diff ered regarding the intra-organizational development of the nationalist organization, certain high-profi le anti-Polish actions of the OUN, the relations of the nationalist underground with the foreign leadership of the OUN, the causes and consequences of the organization’s split in 1940, etc. However, each of the researchers made a signifi cant contribution to the study of a scientifi c problem. Thus, P. Mirchuk’s «Essay on the History of the OUN» remains today the most thorough work on the functioning of the nationalist organization in the pre-war period. His historical explorations devoted to the fi gures of S. Bandera and R. Shukhevych have not lost their importance. The contours of the study of the history of the UPA drawn by P. Mirchuk will continue to be valuable for modern researchers. Of all the works of Z. Knysh, those devoted to the process of formation and activity of the Ukrainian military organization are valuable for the national historical science. It is not by chance that the editorial board of the «Encyclopedia of Ukrainian Studies» turned to this researcher with a proposal to write an article about UMO (UVO) for the ninth volume of the named encyclopedic edition. It has been established that the complete history of UMO is not available today. Therefore, in the future, historians need to make maximum use of the factual material contained in the works of Z. Knysh. Futhermore the scientifi c biographies of S. Bandera and R. Shukhevych are waiting for their researcher (or even better, their researchers). Keywords historiographical analysis, historiographic source, Ukrainian liberation movement, UMO, OUN, UIA, Petrо Mirchuk, Zynovy Knysh.

STATE POLICY IN THE FIELD OF CINEMATOGRAPHY IN THE USSR IN THE EARLY 1920S – MID-1960S: PROBLEMS OF HISTORIOGRAPHY

The article examines the historiographical studies aspects of the study in the national historical science of state policy in the field of cinematography in the USSR in the early 1920s – mid-1960s, identifies the historiographical stages in the study of the problem, gives the characteristics of the main types of scientific publications.

The Soviet Union’s Economic Relations with Austria and the Federal Republic of Germany: Political Factors and the Art of Diplomacy (1955–1964)

The author of this article carries out a comparative analysis of the trade and economic relations of the Soviet Union with Austria and the FRG from 1955 to 1964 (focusing on features of formation and development, contractual foundations, driving forces, and problems). At the same time, the emphasis of the research is on identifying the influence of the political factor of interstate relations on the development of economic cooperation. A comparative analysis of the history of the USSR’s trade and economic relations with Austria and Germany has not been carried out before. The history of the economic interaction of the Soviet Union with these contractors separately has not been sufficiently studied by historical science either. Regarding Austria, Russian and foreign historiography has traditionally focused on the State Treaty of 1955 and its economic component in the form of compensatory supplies. As for the FRG, this initial period has not been studied at all in national historical science, except for several essays. German historians have studied not so much the government’s economic course as the initiatives and activities of industry representatives united in the eastern committee of the German economy. The author employs the comparative-historical method of research and methods of economic science (to a limited extent) and statistical analysis (indicators of foreign trade, bilateral trade). The article aims to contribute to a more complete reconstruction of the wide range of East-West interactions during the Cold War by exploring such a convergent component for both systems as bilateral trade. The Austrian phenomenon of the successful development of trade relations with the USSR is viewed through the prism of a compromise solution to the Austrian question and its economic consequences in the form of fulfilment and reduction of compensatory deliveries. The author highlights the role of the political factor in foreign economic planning and its implementation by both the Soviet Union and its Western capitalist counterparts, neutral Austria, and Germany, which is part of NATO, determining the differences between the latter. If for the trade and economic relations between the USSR and Austria the political factor played a constructive role which brought the two countries closer, for relations with the FRG it was quite destructive, mostly because of the fault of the West German leadership. The article refers to documents of the Russian State Archive of Contemporary History and the Russian State Archive of Economics introduced into scholarly circulation for the first time and egodocuments.

The role of religious leaders in the spiritual life of the Kazakh people in the late 19th – early 20th centuries (based on ethnographic, field materials)

The history of religious figures of the late XIX – early XX centuries, who played a significant role in the spiritual history of the Kazakh people, preached traditional Islamic values, built mosques, madrasahs, schools and worked in the field of spiritual education of the Kazakh people has not yet been sufficiently studied in the national historical science. The policy of atheism alone cannot explain the fact that religious leaders in the Kazakh land became victims of merciless repression in the first years of Soviet power, which continued the colonial policy of Russian imperialism. The real reasons for this are probably the role of these religious leaders in preserving of the national code. The Bolsheviks understood that it was impossible to suppress the spirit of the nation and turn it into a mass completely subordinate to the “red empire”, without losing national identity, without destroying the Ishans, Hazrat, Kalpe and mullahs, who had a powerful influence among the people. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of historical science is an extensive study of the history of religious leaders who worked in the field of the spiritual education of the nation. Research in this area in domestic science is just beginning and is being conducted in a limited way, researching only famous religious figures or local areas. There are still many religious figures who have not found their researcher and have not been able to become the subject of research. The authors of the article strive to make their contribution to the study of this topical problem in Russian science by introducing field ethnographic materials into scientific circulation. As for the methodological basis of the research, the interdisciplinary method and the theory of “regional Islam” were used to determine the forms of development of Islam in the Kazakh steppes, the activities of traditional Islamic figures. Thus, we observe the diversity and uniqueness of traditional culture in each region and the idea of equality of local forms of Islam. Key words: traditional Islam, religious leaders, spiritual education, mosque, madrasah, maktab.

ТӘЖІКСТАН РЕСПУБЛИКАСЫНА 1920-1930 ЖЖ. ҚОНЫС АУДАРҒАН ҚАЗАҚБОСҚЫНДАРЫ: ОЛАРДЫҢ БЕЙІМДЕЛУІ

The article tells about the Kazakh refugees who moved to the countries of Central Asia during the famine of the 20-30s of the last century. In archival documents of the Soviet period, they were written as "nomads". Today, the history of the Kazakhs who emigrated from Kazakhstan during the years of Naubet is an actual topic of national historical science. The basis of our article is the location of the Kazakhs who moved to the Republic of Tajikistan during the difficult years of the famine.The rich, mullahs andhunger refugees -Kazakh refugees who previously inhabited the Mangistau peninsula, migrated through Tajikistanalong the coast of the Caspian Sea, fled fromthe punishment of the Soviet government in the 1930s and famine to the territory of Irancalled “Mazandaran”.After years of settlement, villageswhere Kazakhs mostly settlednearby cities of the province -Gorgan, Bundar, Turkmen and Gombad-i-Kaus, secludedfrom the local population, the Turkmens called "Kazakh village". Eventually, these villages merged with the mentioned cities and joined the territory of the city.

The psychology of natural history

Natural history observations are an integral part of ecology and evolution. However, they can be underappreciated because they operate independent of the scientific method. Here, we illustrate that the science of natural history has its own methodology based on a well-known psychological paradigm that describes how the human mind learns.

ГЕНЕЗИС ГОРОДОВ ЗОЛОТОЙ ОРДЫ: ПРОБЛЕМЫ ИСТОРИОГРАФИИ

This study provides historiographical research of the genesisof the Golden Horde’s cities of the Lower Volga region and West Kazakhstan. The author analyzes well-known theories of the formation of cities, the process of the construction of the cities of the domain part of the Golden Horde. The phenomenon of the cities of the Golden Horde have been attractive for many reasons, the cities did not undergo a natural process of evolution, but adopted all the most advanced ideas of medieval cities. According to one of the points, the cities of the domain part that arose "by the individual iron will" of the kaan became the administrative, economic and cultural center of the Jochi ulus. But to this day, the genesis of cities that have already appeared in their heyday and have fallen into decline in less than a century remains not always obvious. In particular, small settlements that are located near large cities, while having their own developed urban culture. Studied in archaeological terms, the cities of Western Kazakhstan, which developed in the Golden Horde period, still represent white spots in the national historical science. The very process of the genesis of cities, their daily life, the established material and spiritual culture -all this should be the object of research. Aktobe-Laeti settlement is particularly convenient for scientific study, since its convenient location, comparative study and good preservation of the monument allow for a better understanding of medieval urban life.

ХХ Ғ. ЕКІНШІ ЖАРТЫСЫ – ХХІ Ғ. БАСЫНДАҒЫ НЕМІС ТАРИХНАМАСЫНДАҒЫ КЕҢЕСТІК КЕЗЕҢДЕГІ ҚАЗАҚСТАН МӘДЕНИЕТІ

The article presents an analysis of the works of German scientists telling about the history of Kazakhstan of the Soviet period of the second half of the XX-beginning of the XXI century, the history of the local population, about economy, culture, traditions, religions. The scientific significance of these works of theirs is differentiated.A characteristic feature of the current state of historical science in Kazakhstan is the disclosure of problematic issues using the significant potential of foreign research. With the acquisition of state independence, the prerequisites for the emancipation of the national historical science have been created.As you know, the development of Soviet historical science was characterized by its isolation from world science, the strengthening of state ideology, the fight against dissent, which ultimately led to the approval of anti-scientific schemes and concepts in it. In this regard, Kazakh researchers faced the task of objectively recreating the national history, which is unthinkable without realizing it as an integral part of a unified and integral world historical science.The main purpose of writing the article was to familiarize researchers with the scientific environment, the modern reading public.

Join the Dots: assessing a collection of 80 million items at The Natural History Museum, London

ABSTRACT Collections assessments can inform strategic planning, project management, baseline assessment reports, project cost-benefit analyses, support funding requests and collections advocacy. In 2018, 77 staff at the Natural History Museum, London, took part in a successful collections assessment exercise on its 80 million item collection. 17 questions provided details of the Condition, Importance/Significance, Information available and Outreach use/potential about 2602 Collection Units covering the entire Natural History science departments and Library and Archives. Results can be displayed and filtered via a bespoke dashboard in Microsoft Power BI, accessed via a web link available internally to all staff. The project successfully recorded the expertise of the curatorial staff and produced the first comprehensive assessment of the Natural History Museum’s collection. The methodology is outlined here to encourage other institutions to run the same assessment. Future developments in the methodology such as automation of scoring and development of the dashboard are discussed.

Психологическая концепция типов научной рациональности Часть 2. Развитие научного знания

In the first part of the article, it was shown that the type of scientific rationality of a particular theory is determined by the substantial features of the ideal ob­jects used. Depending on the contribution of two components to their content – elements of sensory experience and “free fiction” of the researcher – it is pro­posed to distinguish eight types of rationality. In the second part of the article, an attempt is made to trace the main trends of the historical change of these types of rationality in the history of science, as well as to identify the psycho­logical regulators of the creation of a new scientific knowledge by a particular researcher, specifically involving a transition to a different type of scientific rationality. The provisions of the psychological concept of the scientific ra­tionality types based on the constructivist version of the Self-Determination Theory are developed. A brief analysis of the changes of the rationality types in the history of natural sciences and socio-humanitarian knowledge is given. It is shown that the change of rationality types is nonlinear and assumes the simultaneous coexistence of at least several types within the same branch of science. At the same time, the type of rationality shared by a particular re­searcher determines his individual views on the permissibility of such coexist­ence. Within the framework of the constructivist version of the Self-Determin­ation Theory, the psychological regulators of the formation and competition of scientific knowledge (which are various types of emotionally charged im­ages created by the human psyche) are also analyzed. Psychological regulators of the researcher’s transition to a new type of scientific rationality for a spe­cific scientific field are identified.

“SPEAKING OF THE OTHER, DESCRIBING THE OTHER, THE OBSERVER REPORTS MUCH MORE ABOUT HIMSELF”. Ekaterina Boltunova’s Interview with Maria Leskinen

With the permission of the editorial board of the journal Historical expertise we publish the interview with Maria Voittovna Leskinen, Doctor of Historical Sciences, lead researcher of the Institute for Slavic Studies of the Russian Academy of Science. She was interviewed by Ekaterina Mikhailovna Boltunova, Doctor of Historical Sciences, professor, head of the International Laboratory for the Regional History of Russia in the National Research University Higher School of Economics. The text of the interview was first published on the website of the journal Historical expertise in the April 2021 and hasn’t been printed before. Area of Maria Leskinen’s expertise is study of the images and perceptions of ethnocultural distinctivness of the peoples in the public and scientifi c discources. She analyzed the issues of formation of the Polish Sarmatian ideology of the 16th–17th centuries, also history and evolution of the hetero- and autostereotypes of the Poles and Finns in the ethnological and educational conceptions of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century. Her last papers are dedicated to reconstruction of the perceptions of Great Russians and Little Russians as the „branches“ of the triune Russian people by russian academic community, and also to the debates about the ways of representation of the ideal type of a Great Russian during the period of emperial nationmaking. The interview touches on an issue of situation with reviewing in the national historical science, its quality and the state of the professional critisizing and polemic.