Natural Classroom Setting Research Articles

Translanguaging for the construction of instructional immediacy in a Mandarin–Japanese crosslinguistic class

Abstract Accumulating studies on teachers’ instructional immediacy consistently show a strong positive correlation with teaching effectiveness. To expand the research in a bilingual and cross-cultural context, the current study investigates the construction of instructional immediacy in a natural classroom setting by theoretically anchoring on translanguaging, which refers to the idea of promoting the integration of all linguistic and nonlinguistic resources to achieve effective pedagogy with multilingual speakers. We quantified the nonverbal facial expressions to compare the teacher’s endeavours in different language modes when constructing instructional immediacy, and we used Multimodal Conversation Analysis (MCA) to examine his endeavours. The results revealed language-specific facial expressions which are attributed to varied teaching purposes. We conclude that translanguaging can serve as an effective tool for fostering instructional immediacy in multilingual classrooms.

Staying self-regulated in the classroom: The role of children's executive functions and situational factors.

Self-regulation is crucial for children's learning and development. Several studies have explored children's inter-individual differences in self-regulation, but little is known about sources of intra-individual variation. This study addressed the variability of children's self-regulation across typical classroom situations and how this might be associated with children's executive functions (EFs). The study included 148 children (54.7% girls; Mage = 56.73 months). Self-regulation was assessed with an observational measure in teacher-led and child-led activities within naturalistic classroom settings. Children's EFs were assessed with direct assessments at the start and end of the school year. Linear mixed-effect models showed that children demonstrated higher levels of self-regulation in child-led in comparison with teacher-led activities. Children with higher levels of EFs at the start of the school year showed less variation across teacher-led and child-led activities in comparison with children with lower levels of EFs. Regarding other aspects of the classroom context, neither the group size in which the activity took place nor which school subject it was focused on were associated with children's self-regulation. However, in teacher-led activities the type of interaction involved in the activity and the type of task influenced children's self-regulation. These results suggest that children who start school with higher levels of EFs are more able to adapt to different situations, highlighting the importance of fostering these skills in early childhood. In turn, children with lower levels of EFs may need additional support from teachers to remain self-regulated across different contexts.

Online poetry writing at school – comparing lower secondary students’ experiences between individual and collaborative poetry writing

IntroductionThis study investigates how seventh-grade students experience online collaborative writing, its support in writing poems, and how collaboratively and individually written poems differ.MethodsThe educational design research method was used in this mixed-methods study, which was conducted in natural classroom settings to investigate students’ individual and collaborative poetry writing.ResultsThe quantitative analysis of questionnaires and qualitative thematic analysis of postexperimental interviews show that the students enjoyed collaborative writing more and found it more accessible than individual writing. They experienced that it supported them in writing better poems and increased their writing confidence. They also appreciated the support of teamwork, although individual writing gave them more liberty to explore various aspects of poetry and express their feelings.DiscussionFrom a pedagogical point of view, the students need to be provided with opportunities for collaborative poetry writing to make the writing process easier and more enjoyable. Online collaborative writing supports the process of poetry writing.

Understanding the interconnectedness of L2 learners’ writing assessment literacy and engagement: A longitudinal survey

The longitudinal survey in the current study aims to explore the changes in students’ writing assessment literacy and L2 writing engagement over the course of a semester in a naturalistic classroom setting. Additionally, it intends to examine the impact of perceived student writing assessment literacy at the beginning of the semester on the perceived level of L2 writing engagement at the end of the semester, revealing the importance of developing students' assessment literacy to enhance their engagement in L2 writing from a longitudinal perspective. To achieve the aims, two waves of questionnaire data were collected from 272 Chinese learners of English at the tertiary level. Paired sample t-tests and structural equation modeling were used to analyze the questionnaire data. The findings revealed a noteworthy increase in students’ writing assessment literacy, but no corresponding increase in their engagement in L2 writing over the semester. Furthermore, it has been found that the behavior dimension of student writing assessment literacy emerged as a significant predictor of L2 writing engagement. The pedagogical implications for L2 writing educators are discussed.

Bridging Policy and Practice: An In-depth Exploration of How the DepEd Child Protection Policy Influences Teacher Discipline Strategies

This paper employed a qualitative ethnographic approach aimed at capturing the nuanced experiences of elementary and secondary school teachers in Marikina City in their natural classroom settings and sought to unravel the intricate web of relationships between policy and practice. The DepEd Child Protection Policy, a foundational document in the Philippine educational system, provides educators with direction in the teaching-learning process. It is important to pay great attention to the intricate and dynamic process of comprehending how this policy is implemented in actual classroom settings. For this reason, the study attempted to determine the significance of how the DepEd Child Protection Policy influences teacher discipline strategies by using the emic perspective of ethnographic research. The proponents arranged a focus group discussion in which thirteen teacher-informants took part. It was revealed in the study that the DepEd Child Protection Policy is essential for protecting children from abuse, but concerns about its strictness have led to a potential impact on teachers. Teachers face challenges in implementing the policy, such as fear of consequences and balancing classroom autonomy and parental involvement. Clear communication, consistent rule implementation, and strong relationships with students, parents, and guardians are crucial for creating a safe and inclusive learning environment. Lastly, it suggested expanding the study's sample size in order to get additional information from primary and secondary teachers as well as to incorporate the viewpoints of students and parents in order to validate the instructors' answers.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING AND FORM IN NATURAL EFL CLASSROOMS: A CASE STUDY AMONG PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

The present competence of language learners influences the process, particularly in modifying the input to ensure the exact level of comprehensibility they can manage. It involves the negotiation of meaning (NfM) and form (NfF). Teachers need to pay attention to how frequently both processes occur in classroom interaction and whether the teachers use this situation to enhance students’ language acquisition. Thus, this study aims to seek information concerning the negotiation of meaning and form in the natural classroom setting involving student teachers in a practicum program. To reach the objective of this study, two research questions will address: (1) Do negotiation of meaning and form take place in student-teacher-student interaction in a natural EFL classroom setting? (2) How do the student-teachers use negotiation of meaning and form strategies in the EFL classroom? Mixed method research will be employed by analyzing the utterances and conducting interviews. The analysis of the study reveals that firstly, NfM and NfF are two common occurrences in the student-teacher interaction in the natural EFL classroom under study; secondly, the strategies used by both NfM and NfF covered the negotiation processes with various moves and Long’s (1996) types of signals embracing confirmation check, clarification request, and comprehension check in certain circumstances. Eventually, this study brings profound implications in two areas, namely the design of a teacher training curriculum and the teaching pedagogy.

The University of Pittsburgh English Language Institute Corpus (PELIC)

Abstract This report introduces the University of Pittsburgh English Language Institute Corpus (PELIC; Juffs et al., 2020), a publicly available 4.2-million-word learner corpus of written texts. Collected over seven years in the University of Pittsburgh’s Intensive English Program, these texts were produced by more than 1,100 students with diverse linguistic backgrounds and proficiency levels. Unlike most learner corpora which are cross-sectional, PELIC is longitudinal, offering greater opportunities for tracking development in a natural classroom setting. This potential is illustrated in an overview of the research conducted to date with these data. The report also provides a description of PELIC’s creation and contents, including how the texts have been managed to facilitate natural language processing. Overall, the corpus contributes to the field of learner corpus research by adding to the pool of freely and publicly available learner corpora, supplemented by a useful set of Python tools and tutorials for accessing these data.

Improving Undergraduate Science Education Students’ Argumentation Skills through Debates on Socioscientific Issues

This research aims to examine undergraduate students’ argumentation skills during and after the learning process in the classroom setting and their responses toward the implementation of socioscientific issues (SSI) through debate in the learning process. This research involved 32 undergraduate students and implemented design-based research with pretest and posttest in a natural classroom setting using three topics of SSI debate that widely discussed in Indonesia: Nuclear Powerplant (Topic 1), Food Preservation (Topic 2), and Genetically Modified Organism (Topic 3). Data was collected using observation sheets, tests, and questionnaires. Observation is to measure argumentation ability when applying the debate method in class settings, the test measures the improvement of argumentation skills, and questionnaires measure students’ responses to the application of the debate method. In this study, argumentation scores were obtained from six indicators and divided by a maximum score of 24 times 100. Normalized gain (N-gain) was calculated to determine the effectiveness of the intervention in the classroom. T-test was also conducted to test the significance of the differences in the pretest and posttest results on argumentation skills. The results obtained in this study are: the argumentation skills score during the learning process for six groups were 95, 80.6, 90.3, 95, 83.3, and 77.5; the mean score of pretest and posttest were 52.22 ± 6.62 and 85.78 ± 4.72. The consistency of opinions shows the change from “agree” to “disagree” for Topics 1 and 3. The undergraduate students agree and consistently agree toward Topic 2. The paired t-test result also shows that the intervention statistically has a significant difference between the two means, indicating that the undergraduate students’ argumentation skills are better than before the intervention. Otherwise, most of the undergraduate students respond positively toward the implementation of the debate related to SSI. Despite some limitations, the debate on SSI can improve argumentation skills in classroom settings, especially in science education majors.

The Correlation Between Performances Among Lexical-Related Tasks and The Performance in The Sentence Construction Task

This study employed a quantitative correlational design to explore the correlation between the students' performances among lexical-related tasks and how these tasks affect the performance in a sentence construction task. Using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 22’s Pearson Partial Correlation Test, this study calculated participants' performance in primary lexical attributes by recognizing the following aspects of lexical knowledge: pronunciation patterns, morphological structures, syntactic properties, semantic characteristics such as abstract and interconnectedness, and a complete sentence construction in a strict naturalistic classroom setting. The test results showed that the participants made 297.05 seconds on average for 42 correct responses in Lexical Decision Task, 5.88 seconds per picture projected on the screen in Picture-Naming Task, 8.33 seconds for each word in Semantic Judgment Task, and 30.17 seconds on average to complete a sentence. These results concluded that the participants' performance in identifying strings of letters does not correlate significantly with their performance in understanding how a particular word functions grammatically within a sentence. In terms of the level of automaticity, the participants’ performance exceeded the average performance. The findings suggested that their performance in understanding primary lexical attributes in single lexicons does not facilitate their understanding of semantic characteristics. Henceforth, the students’ lexical knowledge does not yet construct an integrated linguistic representation in the target language acquisition. The study confirmed previous evidence that stated that a better performance in lexical-related tasks significantly impacted sentence processing and construction skill.

Second language learning tunes the language control network: a longitudinal fMRI study

ABSTRACT The current longitudinal study investigated how classroom second language (L2) learning modulates the neural correlates of bilingual language control during language production. Chinese college freshmen majoring in English undertook two test sessions (i.e. pre-learning and post-learning) over the course of one year. Specifically, while in the scanner, participants were instructed to name pictures in either their first or second language in response to cues. Behavioral results showed that language switch costs in the post-learning session were reduced as compared to the pre-learning session. fMRI results showed that, compared to the pre-learning session, the connectivity strength between the dorsal anterior cingulate gyrus and the left caudate was increased in the post-learning session. Critically, this increased connectivity strength was correlated with the reduction in language switch costs. These findings suggest that the language control network used during bilingual language production could be modulated by long-term L2 learning in a naturalistic classroom setting.

Focus of Attention Verbalizations in Beginning Band: A Multiple Case Study

Although the effects of focus of attention (FOA) on the performance of gross motor skills are now well understood, less is known about the role of FOA in naturalistic classroom settings where learners are engaged in the ongoing acquisition and refinement of complex motor skills. The purpose of this study, the first of its kind, was to explore how music teachers focus learners’ attention on physical actions (internal focus) and on the effects of those actions (external focus). We recorded three experienced band directors teaching beginner classes (sixth graders) and completed a content analysis of video recordings to describe (a) teachers’ use of internally focused (IF) and externally focused (EF) verbalizations and (b) patterns among IF and EF verbalizations. These teachers most often directed student attention to internal aspects of performance, and they also paired IF and EF statements to clearly convey how those actions affect external outcomes. Although our descriptive multiple case study design precludes generalization, these data suggest possibilities for future studies that could explore relationships between teachers’ FOA verbalizations and skill development in music classrooms.

Language control network adapts to second language learning: A longitudinal rs-fMRI study

The current longitudinal resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study examined changes in language control network after one year of L2 English classroom learning. A group of Chinese college freshmen majoring in English underwent two scans, one before (i.e., Session 1) and one after (i.e., Session 2) the one-year L2 courses. Learners' language control abilities were assessed via a behavioral language switching task. Our graph theory and functional connectivity analyses revealed that with increased exposure to the L2, nodal betweenness in language control areas, such as the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), decreased and connectivity between dACC and pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) increased. Critically, these neural changes were correlated with participants' behavioral performance on the language switching task. Taken together, these findings suggest that the language control network in resting brain could be modulated by long-term L2 learning in a naturalistic classroom setting, and that the dACC/pre-SMA complex appears to play a critical role in language control.

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A TOEIC PREPARATION COURSE ON NONENGLISH MAJORED STUDENTS’ TOEIC SCORES AT A UNIVERSITY IN VIETNAM

This study aims to examine whether non-English majored students’ TOEIC scores are improved after participating in a TOEIC preparation course. Another purpose is to understand possible reasons affecting the scores. To accomplish the two purposes of the study, students’ TOEIC scores before and after a TOEIC preparation course in a natural classroom setting were analyzed using Paired-samples t-test. Focus group discussions were used to understand reasons that led to changes in scores. Findings suggest that students’ TOEIC scores were not improved when they finished the course. The study students’ perceptions of their effort, background knowledge, motivation, limited instructional time and a change in selected answer choices appeared to negatively affect their achievements.

On the predictors of computational thinking and its growth at the high-school level

Computational thinking (CT) is a key 21st-century skill. This paper contributes to CT research by investigating CT predictors among upper secondary students in a longitudinal and natural classroom setting. The hypothesized predictors are grouped into three areas: student characteristics, home environment, and learning opportunities. CT is measured with the Computational Thinking Test (CTt), an established performance test. N = 202 high-school students, at three time points over one school year, act as the sample and latent growth curve modeling as the analysis method. CT self-concept, followed by reasoning skills and gender, show the strongest association with the level of CT. Computer literacy, followed by duration of computer use and formal learning opportunities during the school year, have the strongest association with CT growth. Variables from all three areas seem to be important for predicting either CT level or growth. An explained variance of 70.4% for CT level and 61.2% for CT growth might indicate a good trade-off between the comprehensiveness and parsimony of the conceptual framework. The findings contribute to a better understanding of CT as a construct and have implications for CT instruction, e.g., the role of computer science and motivation in CT learning.

Timing matters: The interplay of the retrieval frequency and temporal distance between retrieving a prior list and encoding a new list in vocabulary retention

The act of retrieval yields benefits for memory. However, according to the reconsolidation account, reactivation could render a memory amenable to modifications. The present study investigated how the retrieval frequency of a previously learned vocabulary list and the temporal distance of a subsequently encoded list affected retention of the prior list. Recruited from six intact sessions of a college intensive English course, participants learned two unrelated lists of novel words and took cued-recall tests. The results revealed an interaction between the retrieval of list 1 (single vs. repeated) and the encoding of list 2 (close vs. far vs. no). Noteworthy, the repeated-retrievals groups outperformed single-retrieval groups only when list 2 encoding was spaced far apart (i.e., 3-day interval). The memory impairment effect emerged in the presence of list 2 whereas the memory strengthening effect occurred in the absence of list 2. These results suggest that the interplay between repeated retrievals and an extended temporal distance functions in a way that may attenuate memory’s susceptibility to new learning rather than abolish it. Situated in the naturalistic classroom setting, these findings have pedagogical significance for instructors to schedule testing and learning sessions to help learners optimize vocabulary retention.

Mindfulness and Executive Functions: Making the Case for Elementary School Practice.

This study explores the use of mindfulness school-based intervention program in an elementary school. Mindfulness training is an accepted and effective didactic approach to improve the executive functions (EFs) of elementary school students. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of the Mind Yeti program on the executive functions of elementary school students. A diverse sample of third, fourth, and fifth grade elementary school students (n = 177) participated in their natural classroom setting, with six sessions per week for six weeks. Students self-reported their EFs on the Executive Function Student Questionnaire (EFSQ) pre- and posttest. Paired-sample t-tests indicated that students significantly improved on the three of the six EFs examined. Additionally, students in fifth grade responded better to Mind Yeti than students in third grade. Results were consistent with the hypothesis, suggesting that Mind Yeti is an appropriate and effective intervention for improving the EFs of students.

Observation of Communication by Physical Education Teachers: Detecting Patterns in Verbal Behavior.

The aim of this study was to analyze the verbal behavior of primary school physical education teachers in a natural classroom setting in order to investigate patterns in social constructivist communication strategies before and after participation in a training program designed to familiarize teachers with these strategies. The participants were three experienced physical education teachers interacting separately with 65 students over a series of classes. Written informed consent was obtained from all the students' parents or legal guardians. An indirect observation tool (ADDEF) was designed specifically for the study within the theoretical framework, and consisted of a combined field format, with three dimensions, and category systems. Each dimension formed the basis for building a subsequent system of exhaustive and mutually exclusive categories. Twenty-nine sessions, grouped into two separate modules, were coded using the Atlas.ti 7 program, and a total of 1991 units (messages containing constructivist discursive strategies) were recorded. Analysis of intraobserver reliability showed almost perfect agreement. Lag sequential analysis, which is a powerful statistical technique based on the calculation of conditional and unconditional probabilities in prospective and retrospective lags, was performed in GSEQ5 software to search for verbal behavior patterns before and after the training program. At both time points, we detected a pattern formed by requests for information combined with the incorporation of students' contributions into the teachers' discourse and re-elaborations of answers. In the post-training phase, we detected new and stronger patterns in certain sessions, indicating that programs combining theoretical and practical knowledge can effectively increase teachers' repertoire of discursive strategies and ultimately promote active engagement in learning. This has important implications for the evaluation and development of teacher effectiveness in practice and formal education programs.

Exploring the relationship between metacognitive and collaborative talk during group mathematical problem-solving – what do we mean by collaborative metacognition?

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this study was to enhance our understanding of the relationship between collaborative talk and metacognitive talk during group mathematical problem-solving. Research suggests that collaborative talk may mediate the use of metacognitive talk, which in turn is associated with improved learning outcomes. However, our understanding of the role of group work on the individual use of metacognition during problem-solving has been limited because research has focused on either the individual or the group as a collective. Here, primary students (aged nine to 10) were video-recorded in a naturalistic classroom setting during group mathematical problem-solving sessions. Student talk was coded for metacognitive, cognitive and social content, and also for collaborative content. Compared with cognitive talk, we found that metacognitive talk was more likely to meet the criteria to be considered collaborative, with a higher probability of being both preceded by and followed by collaborative talk. Our results suggest that collaborative metacognition arises from combined individual and group processes.

Effect of Male and Female Early Childhood Education Teacher’s Educational Practices on Children’s Social Adaptation

ABSTRACTIt is believed children stand to benefit from a greater male teacher presence in early childhood education (ECE) where, internationally, the vast majority of ECE teachers are female. This study (N = 180) examines the relationship between children’s social adaptation and the educational practices of 53 ECE teachers, 23 (44%) of which were male. Third-party observers assessed practices using the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) in the natural classroom setting. Parents evaluated social adaptation using the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation. Observational data reveal no intersex differences in educational practices. Multilevel model analyses show that children in ECE centers with male and female teachers exhibit less internalized behavior compared with those in centers with female teachers only. A relationship is observed between good classroom organization and instructional support, respectively, and improved children’s social adaptation, regardless of teacher gender. The authors discuss the potential impact of the results on future educational interventions.

Assessing students' executive functions in the classroom: Validating a scalable group-based procedure

We describe and validate a novel, scalable, group-based assessment of executive functions (EFs) in a classroom setting using tablet computers. Relative to the conventional method of a more controlled, one-on-one individual assessment (IA), the group assessment (GA) can be administered quickly to many students, requires less training for assessors, and measures performance in a naturalistic classroom setting. In a socioeconomically and ethnically diverse sample of 269 students in third through fifth grade, we show that IA and GA scores for the same tasks were highly inter-correlated, equally reliable, and showed analogous associations with known EF covariates. IA and GA scores independently predicted teacher-rated self-regulated classroom behavior and standardized test scores. Further, only the GA score emerged as a unique predictor of academic achievement when controlling for prior achievement. We are sharing the tablet apps, source code, and supporting materials for this GA procedure at no cost under an open-source license.