Native Honey Research Articles

Introgressive hybridisation puts the distinctive population of Apis mellifera mellifera in Ireland at risk: evidence from a multidisciplinary approach

Apis mellifera mellifera a honey bee subspecies at risk of extinction across much of its range has a stronghold in Ireland where it is the native honey bee subspecies and is referred to as the black bee. However, an increase in imports of other subspecies and commercial strains is now a major threat to its genetic integrity. Furthermore, despite assertions by Irelands’ beekeepers that the black bee is a distinct ecotype, little taxonomic work has focused on this population. Here we liaise with beekeepers and assess the managed honey bee cohort for signs of increased introgression. We also investigate morphological variation in A. m. mellifera colonies to establish for the first time a description of this subspecies in Ireland. SNPs and mitochondrial data indicate a further increase in introgression in the population even though much of the population remains A. m. mellifera. The morphology of Irish A. m. mellifera has deviated significantly from European populations and can be characterised as being smaller and hairier, with a broad abdomen, shorter legs and a shorter proboscis. Their fore wings are longer but with a smaller cubital index. These attributes may have evolved as adaptations to the unique environmental and climatic conditions found in Ireland but may also have been influenced by artificial selection and/or genetic drift.

New COI-COII mtDNA Region Haplotypes in the Endemic Honey Bees Apis mellifera intermissa and Apis mellifera sahariensis (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Algeria.

The practice of beekeeping in Algeria is of great cultural, social, and economic importance. However, the importation of non-local subspecies reported by beekeepers has disrupted the natural geographical distribution area and the genetic diversity of the native honey bees. To assess the genetic diversity of A. m. intermissa and A. m. sahariensis, and their relationships with African and European subspecies, the COI-COII intergenic region was analyzed in 335 individuals, 68 sampled in Algeria, 71 in Europe, Madagascar, and the South West Indian Ocean archipelagos, and 196 sequences recovered from GenBank. The results show the presence of the A lineage exclusively in Algerian samples with the identification of 24 haplotypes of which 16 are described for the first time. These haplotypes were found to be shared by both subspecies, with A74 being the most common haplotype in the population studied. The sequence comparison indicates the existence of three polymorphisms of the COI-COII marker: P0Q, P0QQ, and P0QQQ. One new haplotype was identified in the M lineage in samples from France. No evidence of genetic introgression within the Algerian honey bee population was detected. These data enhance our knowledge of the genetic diversity and emphasize the importance of protecting these local subspecies.

Honey bee (Apis cerana) queen rearing methods influence queen morphological characteristics and reproductive related gene expression

The quality of the queen is crucial for the survival and growth of honey bee colonies. There have been studies related to raising queens with excellent performance since the invention of artificial queen rearing technologies. However, relatively few studies have been undertaken that evaluate the relationship between queen quality and queen morphology and the expression level of reproduction-related genes using different-aged brood in artificial queen rearing practices of Eastern honey bees (Apis cerana). Therefore, we transferred eggs, 1-day-old larvae, 2-day-old larvae, and 3-day-old larvae to queen cells to rear queens until the queen emerged. We measured 12 indicators (the acceptance rate, birth weight, length, caliber and maximum diameter of queen cells, thorax length, width and weight, head width, wing length and width, and number of ovarian tubes). Moreover, the relative expression levels of Hexamerin, Vitellogenin, and Transferrin were measured using fat bodies and ovaries dissected from the newly emerged virgin queens. The results showed that queens reared from eggs exhibited the best morphological indexes and occupied the most abundant reproductive related gene expression level. Parameter values for queen from 1-day-old larvae were significantly higher than those for queens from 2-day-old larvae and 3-day-old larvae, and there was no significant difference between values for queens from 2-day-old larvae and 3-day-old larvae in most data, except for the relative gene expression. In conclusion, as the age of the brood increased, the quality of the queen bees declined. Rearing queens from fertilized eggs are far more likely to yield a better outcome for queen performance and colony function. This study provides data support for raising high-quality queens of Apis cerana, which would be benefit for the protection and better utilization of our native honey bee species.

Natural honey supplementation in Tris-egg yolk diluent as Carbohydrate source replacing Fructose in Etawah Crossbred Goat semen

This study aims to identify the substitution of native honey as an energy source to replace fructose in Tris-KT diluent to improve the quality of spermatozoa of Etawah crossbreed goats (PE). The study was conducted at the Nekamese Vocational School and the Wiliams and Laura Foundation Biological and Reproductive Laboratory for 2 months. In this study, four PE male goats were used as a source of semen. Cement is accommodated twice a week. The semen obtained was evaluated macroscopically and microscopically then diluted with T-KT diluent with the addition of honey divided into P0 (control), P1 (T-KT + 0.25 w/v honey), P2 (T-KT + 0.50 w/v honey) and P3 (T-KT + 0.75 w/v honey). After dilution the cement is stored at a temperature of 3-5°C. Semen is evaluated post-dilution and post-storage every 24 hours, until the movement of spermatozoa is at least 40%. The variables tested were motility and viability of spermatozoa. P3 provides the best results in maintaining cement quality. The results showed that honey substitution in Tris-KT diluent exerted a marked effect on the motility and viability of spermatozoa (P<0.05) during storage.

Japanese honey bees (Apis cerana japonica) have swarmed more often over the last two decades

The impacts of temperature increase are a concern for honey bees, which are major pollinators of crops and wild plants. Swarming is the reproductive behavior of honey bees that increases colony numbers. Honey bee colonies sometimes swarm multiple times, with each swarming termed a “swarming event” and a series of these events called a “swarming cycle.” The number of swarming events per swarming cycle varies widely depending on climatic conditions and subspecies, and the recent temperature increase due to global warming might be affecting the number of swarming events per swarming cycle of native honey bees. We clarified long-term changes in the number of swarming events per swarming cycle of Japanese honey bees (Apis cerana japonica) by collecting beekeepers’ swarming logbooks. The survey showed that between 2000 and 2022, Japanese honey bees swarmed 1 to 8 times per swarming cycle. Generalized linear model analysis indicated that year had a significant positive effect (coefficient, 0.03; 95% CI, 0.01–0.04); that is, the number of swarming events per swarming cycle showed a moderate increase over time. In addition, we found that colonies swarmed more often in a cycle when the swarming process began in early spring, especially in March. Considering the notably strong trend in Japan of warmer temperatures in March, the number of swarming events per swarming cycle may be increasing because reproduction is beginning earlier in the year. Further analyses are needed to verify the causal relationship of temperature increase on the number of swarming events per swarming cycle.

Free-living colonies of native honey bees (Apis mellifera mellifera) in 19th and early 20th century Sweden

Little information exists on the history and ecology of free-living colonies of European honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in Europe, including its dark north-western subspecies (Apis mellifera mellifera). Our aim was to investigate the presence of colonies of free-living, native honey bees (A. m. mellifera) during the last two centuries in Sweden. For this we examined systematic interviews of beekeepers (176 answers from 158 questionnaires) performed in the years 1928–1981, with information dating back to the early 1800s. An overwhelming majority of answers (96%) confirmed the past presence of free-living colonies of honey bees in Sweden. While some stated that free-living colonies were simply absconded swarms from managed hives, the majority of interviewees (69%) believed that free-living colonies were of a truly wild origin. A decreasing trend in first-hand accounts of free-living colonies suggests that free-living populations underwent a dramatic decline at the end of the 19th century. This was also expressed in words by many interviewees, who in 14 cases stated that the loss of old forests and tree-cavity nest sites at the end of the 1800s was the primary cause of the decline. Direct accounts of perennial, free-living colonies, combined with detailed descriptions of the collection of large free-living colonies and/or wild honey, is strong evidence of free-living honey bees being well adapted to winter survival. These accounts contradict the officially supported view that the honey bee is a recently imported, domesticated, non-native species in Sweden. The results give a scientific underpinning and provide inspiration for the restoration of native forests which could facilitate populations of free-living colonies of A. m. mellifera exposed to natural selection. This could potentially lead to its return as a fully wild species. In an uncertain future, allowing for a natural lifestyle could increase resilience and reinstate characteristics that are otherwise lost in honey bees due to the increasing effects of artificial trait selection.Implications for insect conservationOur results present strong evidence for populations of free-living colonies of A. m. mellifera in the recent past, which calls for a revised look at its conservation status and management. Allowing and supporting free-living colonies of this subspecies should be evaluated as a method for conservation.

Use of Portable Fluorescence Spectroscopy and SIMCA Method to Test The Authenticity of Apis mellifera Honey From Coffee Flower Nectar Mixed With Two Artificial Sweeteners

Honey with coffee flowers nectar is native honey formed from flower nectar. In this investigation, corn syrup and rice syrup, two artificial sweeteners, were utilized as an adulterant. Portable fluorescence spectroscopy and the SIMCA method are the tools and techniques employed. There were up to 20 samples of pure Apis mellifera honey and up to 120 samples of mixed honey (MC), each used twice. Data on the emission spectra, which are excited at a wavelength of 365 nm, were measured over the wavelength range of 300-800 nm. To improve accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity, the original spectral data was altered using a number of pre-treatments. Pretreatment with the original data with smoothing moving average may accurately identify samples and provides 100% accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. One of the steps of the SIMCA approach, the cumulative PC, has a value of 92%, which indicates that it well explains the variation of the data. The x-loading plot's values are near the peak of the waves at 378 and 460 nm, indicating the existence of phenolic and flavonoid chemicals at those wavelengths. Keywords: Apis mellifera honey, Corn syrup, Rice syrup, Portable Spectroscopy, SIMCA.

Exploring a Potential Avenue for Beekeeping in Ireland: Safeguarding Locally Adapted Honeybees for Breeding Varroa-Resistant Lines.

Beekeeping in Ireland has been strongly impacted by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor, whose introduction caused alarming honeybee colony losses. If unmitigated, these losses could lead to the disappearance of the native honeybee subspecies, Apis mellifera mellifera, with severe consequences for local biodiversity. Although beekeepers play a pivotal role in mitigating this crisis, beekeeping in Ireland is less intensive compared to other European regions, lacking significant infrastructure or support. These circumstances offer a unique opportunity for the development of national programmes that promote sustainable beekeeping practices for varroa control. Notably, local accounts highlight an increasing number of beekeepers successfully managing colonies in the absence of treatments, indicating a potential avenue for developing varroa-resistant stocks through selection of local colonies. Through a survey, we explored beekeeper's opinions and attitudes towards future national projects focused on the development of sustainable beekeeping practices and selection for varroa resistance. The findings confirm the hobbyist nature of Irish beekeepers and their preference for the native honey bee. Some beekeepers were reported to be effectively controlling varroa without treatment, yielding comparable survivals to those using treatments. The majority expressed preference towards a varroa-resistant line if it were of native origin; a few were open to importing non-Irish lines. Overall, a strong willingness to participate in a national breeding programme was expressed. These findings highlight a prime opportunity for Ireland to establish a community-driven strategy based on sustainable beekeeping practices for safeguarding native honeybees and local biodiversity.

Increased levels of introgression evident in Irish honey bees

Ireland is home to a significant population of the black bee, Apis mellifera mellifera, however, in recent years the numbers of imported queens have increased 10 fold and beekeepers are observing more bees that are not totally black. Here we confirm an increase in the proportion of introgressed honey bees in Ireland via multiple approaches. The use of colour and wing morphometrics is becoming less reliable in Ireland to identify native honey bees due to the increased presence of various hybrid phenotypes and genotypes.

Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Properties of Monofloral Honeys from Chile.

Honey is a mixture of compounds produced by bees that has been appreciated by humanity since the creation of the oldest civilizations. It has multiple uses and can be a highly nutritional and healing substance. It has been used in traditional medicine as a natural alternative for the treatment of diverse clinical conditions. This is due to its reported bioactive properties. The objective of this article is to exhibit and analyze the biological properties of different types of honey originating from Chile based on their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities, focusing primarily on recompiling experimental studies made on monofloral honey of plant species present in the Chilean territory. The result of this bibliographical review shows that Chilean honey possesses remarkable bioactive properties, mainly antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, with a few studies on its anti-inflammatory activity. Most of these results were attributed to monofloral honey belonging to ulmo (Eucryphia cordifolia) and quillay (Quillaja saponaria Molina) plant species. These properties are related to the presence of several bioactive components, such as phenolic components (mainly flavonoids), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), enzymes, proteins, and carbohydrates. The biodiversity of the flora and the environmental conditions of the Chilean territory are responsible for the wide range of bioactive compounds and biological properties found in Chilean honey. Further studies must be made to uncover the medicinal potential of these native honeys.

Physicochemical parameters and chemoprofiling of honey of two species of stingless bees in the Peruvian Amazon

The physicochemical and chemical characteristics of stingless bee honey from two commonly grown species in the Peruvian Amazon, Melipona eburnea and Tetragonisca angustula, were evaluated. Key physicochemical findings include humidity levels exceeding Codex-Alimentarius limits (28.13 g/100 g of honey for M. eburnea and 26.33 g/100 g for T. angustula), while sugar content fell below minimum requirements (54.3 g/100 g of honey and 43.5, respectively). Hydroxymethylfurfural levels were 12.5 mg/100 g of honey and 0.4, respectively. Using MALDI-TOF/TOF analysis, biologically and medicinally relevant molecules derived from plants and microbes were tentatively detected in both honey samples. These molecules encompassed properties such as anticancer, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral. Notable compounds in M. eburnea honey included naringenin chalcone, caffeine, berberine, and glycosyl trans-zeatin-O-glucoside, previously documented in various honey types. Additionally, quinine, paclitaxel, stigmastonol, and surfactin C, with therapeutic potential, were preliminarily detected for the first time in this honey. T. angustula honey also contained medicinal molecules including lutein, cinnamic acid, fraxin, and hyperoside, along with newly observed compounds such as osthole, culmorin, and uncarine C (cat’s claw). Both honey samples exhibited trace levels of non-natural compounds, including commercial pesticides and herbicides, suggesting environmental contaminants. Further research is needed to verify the identity of these molecules, understand their potential sources, quantify their levels in Amazonian honey, and assess consumption and health implications. This study highlights the necessity for a novel technical standard exclusive to stingless bee honey, encompassing methodologies for measuring the physicochemical parameters and for monitoring the chemical profile to assess the medicinal potential of native honey and define maximum limits for environmental pollutants. This pioneering work underscores the ecological, medicinal, and economic value of stingless bees in the Peruvian Amazon.

The presence of identical deformed wing virus sequence variants in co-occurring Apis species in Northern Thailand may represent a potential epidemiological threat to native honey bees of Southeast Asia

Widespread native honey bee species in South and East Asia (Apis cerana, Apis dorsata and Apis florea) and the imported western honey bee (Apis mellifera) share habitats and potentially also share pathogens. Chief among the threats facing A. mellifera in Europe and North America is deformed wing virus (DWV), including its two principal genotypes: A and B (DWV-A and DWV-B respectively). Though DWV-A has been recorded in Asia’s native Apis species, it is not known if DWV-B, or both DWV-A and DWV-B, are currently widespread in Asia and, if so, whether viral transmission is primarily intraspecific or interspecific. This study aims to fill these knowledge gaps by (i) determining the DWV genotype in four co-occurring Apis host species using qPCR and (ii) inferring viral transmission between them using nucleotide sequences of DWV from Apis host species collected at three independent localities in Northern Thailand. We found DWV-A and -B in all four Apis species, the exotic A. mellifera and the native A. cerana, A. dorsata and A. florea. That DWV-A sequences were identical across Apis species at the same locality, with a similar pattern for DWV-B sequences, suggests that DWV’s epidemiology is largely driven by ongoing interspecific transmission (spillover) of DWV across co-occurring native and exotic Apis species. Both genotypes of DWV represent a serious threat to Asia’s exotic and native honey bee species.

Development, behaviour, productivity, and health status of the native honey bee Apis mellifera ruttneri vs. the introduced A. m. ligustica in Malta

The tiny population of the endemic Maltese honey bee (A. m. ruttneri) is threatened by anthropogenic influences, such as urbanisation, habitat loss, and unsustainable agricultural practices, but most prominently by the importation of commercially important non-native stock. To obtain data on the colony life cycle parameters of A. m. ruttneri and to measure its apicultural performance in relation to imported A. m. ligustica under Maltese conditions, we conducted a comparative study between mid-2017 and early 2020. Over one full season, colonies of both subspecies (A. m. ruttneri (n = 15) vs. A. m. ligustica (n = 18)) were regularly assessed for survival, colony size, behaviour, and presence of diseases. The comparative assessments were completed in September 2018, but monitoring and sampling of the surviving colonies of A. m. ruttneri continued until March 2020. Our results clearly indicate that the tested group of sister queens of A. m. ruttneri is well adapted to the prevailing environmental conditions in Malta. The colonies survived significantly longer compared to the tested group of sister queens of A. m. ligustica and performed better in several parameters measured, their colony development, and health being well in tune with the environment. A. m. ruttneri received acceptable scores for behavioural traits (gentleness and calmness on the comb), showing potential for improvement by breeding. The results from this pioneering study clearly indicate that A. m. ruttneri, with its superior adaptation to Maltese conditions and the potential to improve by breeding, represents a prime option towards economically sound beekeeping on the Maltese archipelago.

Identification of runs of homozygosity in Western honey bees (Apis mellifera) using whole-genome sequencing data.

Runs of homozygosity (ROH) are continuous homozygous segments that arise through the transmission of haplotypes that are identical by descent. The length and distribution of ROH segments provide insights into the genetic diversity of populations and can be associated with selection signatures. Here, we analyzed reconstructed whole-genome queen genotypes, from a pool-seq data experiment including 265 Western honeybee colonies from Apis mellifera mellifera and Apis mellifera carnica. Integrating individual ROH patterns and admixture levels in a dynamic population network visualization allowed us to ascertain major differences between the two subspecies. Within A. m. mellifera, we identified well-defined substructures according to the genetic origin of the queens. Despite the current applied conservation efforts, we pinpointed 79 admixed queens. Genomic inbreeding (F ROH) strongly varied within and between the identified subpopulations. Conserved A. m. mellifera from Switzerland had the highest mean F ROH (3.39%), while queens originating from a conservation area in France, which were also highly admixed, showed significantly lower F ROH (0.45%). The majority of A. m. carnica queens were also highly admixed, except 12 purebred queens with a mean F ROH of 2.33%. Within the breed-specific ROH islands, we identified 14 coding genes for A. m. mellifera and five for A. m. carnica, respectively. Local adaption of A. m. mellifera could be suggested by the identification of genes involved in the response to ultraviolet light (Crh-BP, Uvop) and body size (Hex70a, Hex70b), while the A. m. carnica specific genes Cpr3 and Cpr4 are most likely associated with the lighter striping pattern, a morphological phenotype expected in this subspecies. We demonstrated that queen genotypes derived from pooled workers are useful tool to unravel the population dynamics in A. mellifera and provide fundamental information to conserve native honey bees.

Relationship between the Abundance of Native Honey Bee Species (<i>Apis cerana</i>) and Distance to Natural Forests in Hyuganatsu (<i>Citrus tamurana</i>) Orchards in Aya Town, Japan

This study aimed to examine the relationship between the ecosystem services of pollination offered by native honey bees (Apis cerana) and the distance to natural forests (as an indicator of landscape structure) in hyuganatsu (Citrus tamurana) orchards in Aya Town, Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan. Two statistical models were developed to predict the number of visits of native honey bees to hyuganatsu tree. The area-distaince model (AD-model) considered the area of natural forests and distance from natural forests and the area model (A-model) considered the total area of the surrounding natural forests, and the results of the two models were compared. The estimated parameters of both models suggested a positive effect of natural forests on pollination services. Further, the estimated effect of the landscape structure of the AD-model was greater than that of the A-model. These results suggested that the distance to natural forests is an important landscape factor for evaluating pollination services by native honey bees.

The history of the development of northern beekeeping in the conditions of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

Currently, bee products have become one of the competitive types of agricultural products. Due to their useful properties, their relevance remains on top. Bee products began to be sold in many markets, including in the Arctic regions of Russia. The population of the far north began to use local products of northern beekeeping more often, in view of their usefulness. For many years, breeding of bees has been practiced in Yakutia. In Soviet times, apiaries were used on collective farms, eventually gaining experience in keeping heat-loving insects in the harsh Yakut winters. However, until now, the production of Yakut honey has not acquired an industrial scale, and remains at the level of production of individual beekeepers - enthusiasts. The temperature range in this Far Eastern region is huge. In winter it reaches up to - 60°C. But for all the severity of winter, summer here can be quite hot and not so short-term. Due to its climatic data, the south of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) is considered the most suitable for beekeeping. Also, the middle part of the region up to Yakutsk is suitable for it. The abundance of honey plants growing in Yakutia speaks in favor of Yakut beekeeping: black and red currants, blueberries, lingonberries, rosehip, raspberries, spirea, white clover, alfalfa, clover and others. But the main base for honey bees is cypress (ivan-tea). The abundance of honey plants is supported by a healthy ecological environment in which they grow. This fact makes Yakut honey one of the most environmentally friendly in the world. Beekeepers say that even though it is expensive to produce, it more than pays for the high cost with its quality, which should be appreciated by wealthy buyers from all over the world. The Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) can become an excellent alternative to other branches of the agricultural complex, which are unable to develop here due to unsuitable natural conditions. Locals do not trust the quality of goods brought from other countries too much. Therefore, many people prefer not to buy honey at all. But the greater the demand for high-quality native honey, the more incentives local beekeepers will have to develop their farms.

Pollination-precision hypothesis: support from native honey bees and nectar bats.

The evolution of floral traits is often considered to reflect selection for increased pollination efficiency. Known as the pollination-precision hypothesis, increased pollination efficiency is achieved by enhancing pollen deposition on precise areas of the pollinator. Most research to date addressing this hypothesis has examined plant species that are a priori predicted to place pollen precisely, but we still lack comparisons with species predicted to have low pollination efficiency. We studied 39 plant species with diverse floral morphologies and measured the precision of pollen placement on two pollinator groups: honey bees (genus Apis) and nectar bats (family Pteropodidae). Pollen was collected from four locations of each pollinator's body (bees: dorsal thorax, ventral thorax, dorsal abdomen, ventral abdomen; bats: crown, face, chest, wing) to calculate pollen placement precision using Pielou's evenness index. We also quantified variation in floral design by scoring floral symmetry, corolla fusion, floral orientation and stamen number. We confirm the importance of four floral character states (bilateral symmetry, fused corollas, horizontal orientation and reduced stamen number) in promoting precise pollen placement on diverse pollinators. Our findings provide phylogenetically corrected, empirical support that the evolution of the four floral characters reflect selection for enhanced precision of pollen placed on pollinators.

Raman spectroscopy combined with machine learning algorithms to detect adulterated Suichang native honey

Zhejiang Suichang native honey, which is included in the list of China’s National Geographical Indication Agricultural Products Protection Project, is very popular. This study proposes a method of Raman spectroscopy combined with machine learning algorithms to accurately detect low-concentration adulterated Suichang native honey. In this study, the native honey collected by local beekeepers in Suichang was selected for adulteration detection. The spectral data was compressed by Savitzky–Golay smoothing and partial least squares (PLS) in sequence. The PLS features taken for further analysis were selected according to the contribution rate. In this study, three classification modeling methods including support vector machine, probabilistic neural network and convolutional neural network were adopted to correctly classify pure and adulterated honey samples. The total accuracy was 100%, 100% and 99.75% respectively. The research result shows that Raman spectroscopy combined with machine learning algorithms has great potential in accurately detecting adulteration of low-concentration honey.

Further Evidence of Population Admixture in the Serbian Honey Bee Population.

Simple SummaryThe western honey bee is one of the most ecologically and economically important pollinator species. Due to human interference, it faces serious challenges, not only in number decline and habitat loss, but also in natural subspecies diversity and distribution. The conservation of genetic diversity and perseverance of locally adapted populations and subspecies becomes a crucial task in the face of rapid environmental changes. In order to further assess present genetic variability in Serbian honey bee populations, we analyzed 14 microsatellite loci and then compared nine of them with previously published data. Our results suggest that Serbia now harbors a distinct, relatively homogenous honey bee population, although some local differences are still preserved.Socioeconomic interests and beekeeper preferences have often taken precedence over the conservation of locally native honey bee subspecies, leading to the predominance of admixture populations in human-dominated areas. To assess the genetic diversity of contemporary managed Serbian honey bee colonies, we used 14 microsatellite loci and analyzed 237 worker bees from 46 apiaries in eight localities of northern and southern Serbia. Furthermore, we compared data for nine microsatellite loci with 338 individuals from Italy, Hungary, Poland, and Spain. The standard parameters of genetic diversity in Serbian honey bee populations were in line with other analyses, although somewhat smaller. STRUCTURE analysis showed the existence of two equally distributed genetic clusters and Analysis of molecular variances could not confirm the presence of a geographically discrete population but showed local differences. Discriminant analysis of principal components showed overlapping of worker bees from different parts of Serbia. Clear genetic differentiation can be observed when comparing all populations between geographical regions and their corresponding subspecies. The absence of the A. m. macedonica subspecies from its historical distribution range in southern Serbia as well as the lack of distinctive geographical groups suggest that selective breeding, queen import, and migratory beekeeping practices strongly influence the genetic structure and diversity of honey bees, leading to the genetic uniformization and creation of the admixture population.

DIVERSITY OF THE CLOSED-NESTED HONEY BEES (APIDAE: APIS SPP.) AND THE TRADITIONAL HONEY COLLECTING AND BEEKEEPING IN FOUR ISLANDS OF INDONESIA

The closed-nested honey bees are an important group that has been successfully bred traditionally and in a modern way. The traditional honey beekeeping practices are still favorable by local people living near natural habitats. Many rural areas in Indonesia are well known as producers of honey from the traditional honey collecting and traditional honey beekeeping of the closed-nested honey bees. However, there is limited information on the diversity of the honey bees that had supported the honey productions and their traditional honey beekeeping. This research was to provide an overview of the diversity of the honey bee species that are used in the wild honey collecting and their traditional honey beekeeping in four selected study sites in the islands of Java, Bawean, Kalimantan, and Peleng. We recorded three species of closed-nested native honey bees in the traditional honey collecting and traditional honey beekeeping, namely Apis cerana, A. koschevnikovi, and A. nigrocincta. We observed that traditional beekeeping of A. cerana was carried out in Tasikmalaya and Bawean Island, and that of A. cerana and A. koschevnikovi were carried out in Kayan Hilir. On Peleng Island, people do not do beekeeping but collect honey directly from the forest. Honey collecting and beekeeping practices are related to changes in the seasons of the flowering period in their habitats. The knowledge of the flowering period is needed to know the seasonal movement of honey bees from forest to village and vice versa.