Nations Security Council Research Articles

Secrets and transparency: The Office of Strategic Information and the first freedom of information law

AbstractFreedom of information (FOI) rose to saliency in the early Cold War period as the presidency grappled with controlling what government information was made public or available to Congress. A lack of formal structures and authority provided presidents with the opportunity to unilaterally shape new policies and structures. One such structure was the Office of Strategic Information (OSI), created by a National Security Council directive and housed in the Commerce Department. Congress utilized its oversight power by creating the Moss Subcommittee on Government Information to investigate these new policies and structures. Over a 4‐year period in the mid‐1950s, an interbranch power struggle emerged over what authority existed within the executive branch to deny information and testimony to Congress. OSI is one example in a larger context of FOI that left Congress seeking to clarify executive authority within existing statutes and among new structures, leading to the passage of the first freedom of information law in 1958. Original archival research is used to provide insight into the complexities of governing in a separation of powers system. This early case study informs contemporary politics on congressional access to executive information.

How does the use of cryptocurrency affect circular economy practices in manufacturing companies?

In nations facing international pressures, such as sanctions, leaders should attempt to utilize advanced technologies more effectively, while fostering the skills and intelligence of the human resources, and enhancing public confidence in the use of emerging technologies in Industry 5.0. In this article our goal is to investigate the effect of acceptance and use of cryptocurrencies on the circular economy. The theoretical contribution of this research is to enrich the literature related to the factors affecting the adoption of digital currencies and its impact on the circular economy. Also, due to the importance of technology awareness in Industry 5, its effect on the adoption of digital currencies was evaluated. For several decades, Iran has been exposed to political and economic sanctions by the United Nations Security Council, the US, and the European Union (EU). Given the importance of natural resources in Iran's economy, and the presence of barriers regarding financial transactions, all manufacturing companies working in Iran were selected as the statistical population of the current study. The findings showed that variables like the realized ease of use, the realized efficiency, trust, technological intelligence and social influence have been effective on the acceptance and use of cryptocurrencies. Also, use of cryptocurrencies in manufacturing companies has had effect on the circular economy activities. The other research results revealed that the factor of economic sanction in the studied society might have effect on the use of cryptocurrencies and consequently companies’ circular economy. The policy-makers active in the field of the environment, and also managers of manufacturing companies by creating an infrastructure for financial exchange based on digital currency can provide the needed ground for production in line with the environment and sustainable resource management.

Repeated time-series cross-validation: A new method to improved COVID-19 forecast accuracy in Malaysia

Forecasting COVID-19 cases is challenging, and inaccurate forecast values will lead to poor decision-making by the authorities. Conversely, accurate forecasts aid Malaysian government authorities and agencies (National Security Council, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Education, and Ministry of International Trade and Industry) and financial institutions in formulating action plans, regulations, and legal acts to control COVID-19 spread in the country. Therefore, this study proposes Repeated Time-Series Cross-Validation, a new data-splitting strategy to identify the best forecasting model that is capable of producing the lowest error measures value and a high percentage of forecast accuracy for COVID-19 prediction in Malaysia. Some of the highlights of the proposed method are:•A total of 21 models, five data partitioning sets, and four error measures to improve the forecast accuracy of daily COVID-19 cases in Malaysia.•The best model selected produces the lowest error measure value for the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE), and Mean Absolute Scaled Error (MASE).•The average 8-day forecast accuracy is 90.2 %. The lowest and highest forecast accuracy was 83.7 % and 98.7 %.

‘I felt’: Intimate geographies of sentient diplomacy

This paper explores feelings in diplomatic intimacies in the United Nations in New York. Drawing upon arguments in philosophy on emotional experience and supported by oral testimonies of diplomats, it supplements and complements the rich body of work on practices in diplomacy by exploring how feelings can reach out and be directed towards things in the world beyond the bounds of the body and this is part of the phenomenology of everyday diplomatic lives. I set out three key interconnected goals in order to personify state diplomacy: First, I show how feelings are bound up with cognition and perception and are not the mere effects of these. Secondly, I link feelings with the affective context of the United Nations Security Council in order to expose everyday existential experiences of individual diplomats. Thirdly, I reveal the perceived importance of eliciting events in this geopolitical setting, and the personal meaning of these to diplomats as expressed through their own feelings as state representatives. This is a unique approach to understanding diplomacy in political geography, and also the first of its kind in the study of the intimate geopolitics of the UN.

Current state of legal regulation of economic activities in the field of organizing and conducting gambling

The article is devoted to the issues of characterizing the current state of development of legal regulation of economic activity in the field of organization and conduct of gambling. The development of the gambling industry and market in Ukraine, their impact on social processes, including negative ones, the speed of regulatory reaction, tax revenues and other factors, shows the importance of this type of economic activity in the general economic environment and the need for its comprehensive study. It was determined that the regulation of social relations of this type of economic activity is characterized by a variety of norms that are involved in this process from different branches of law and the presence of current socially significant problems, the response to which is associated with possible changes to legislation. A separate component of these processes is the effect of martial law in Ukraine and the efforts of the subjects of regulatory and legal regulation to use the discretionary powers granted in connection with this. In turn, such actions, regardless of their positive nature, have law enforcement risks associated with the «legal purity» of the adopted normative legal acts. The author examines the current state of legal regulation of economic activity in the field of gambling, considers the possibility of alternative approaches to the generalization of the results of such an analysis, depending on the type of economic relations. It was determined that at the current stage of the development of legislation on gambling, the regulation of such economic activity can be carried out not only with the help of special legislation, but also by individual legal acts (Decision of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine on the introduction of sanctions), which is contrary to legal principles and the jurisdictional criterion of the origin of regulatory influence. It is concluded that it is necessary to take into account the priority of legislative procedures before the regulatory reaction caused by the resonance of social problems, and it is proposed, taking into account the state of development of the gambling business in Ukraine, to apply special management regimes.

An analysis of humanitarian and health aid harmonisation over a decade (2011–2019) of the Syrian conflict

IntroductionAid harmonisation is a key component of donor efforts to make aid more effective by improving coordination and simplifying and sharing information to avoid duplication. This study evaluates the harmonisation...

United Nations Security Council Resolutions

United Nations Security Council Resolutions

Critical analysis of international law failures in the Russian invasion of Ukraine: implications for global security

This paper offers a critical analysis of the structural deficiencies in international law that Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine revealed in 2022. The study reveals a significant failure of international legal mechanisms, in particular the United Nations, to effectively deter Russian aggression and prevent the escalation of violence. Despite numerous legal actions and international responses – including resolutions by the United Nations General Assembly, proceedings at the International Court of Justice and investigations by the International Criminal Court – these measures have failed to alter Russia’s conduct or prevent further deterioration of the situation in Ukraine. The study employs a normative juridical approach, analyzing the legality of Russia’s actions considering established international norms and principles. Through this methodology, the research uncovers how Russia’s justifications for its military intervention – based on self-defense, collective self-defense, and allegations of genocide – are legally flawed and inconsistent with international law. Moreover, the research reveals the broader implications of these violations, including the potential erosion of global legal norms and the setting of dangerous precedents that could undermine international peace and security. The findings of this research highlight the urgent need for reform within the international legal framework to address these deficiencies. The paper concludes by proposing specific reforms, such as expanding the abstention obligation in the United Nations Security Council and clarifying the legal basis for humanitarian intervention, to strengthen the enforcement of international law and better protect state sovereignty. These insights contribute to the ongoing discourse on the role of international law in conflict resolution and the maintenance of global security.

No dog in this fight: Interrogating Ethiopia’s calculated neutrality towards the Russia-Ukraine war

ABSTRACT Ethiopia has officially adopted a neutral position in the Russia-Ukraine war in line with the principles of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Despite the centrality of sovereignty and territorial integrity in Ethiopia’s foreign policy, the government has avoided publicly castigating Russia for its assault on Ukraine’s sovereignty. This stance constitutes a sovereignty paradox when viewed in light of Ethiopia’s demonstrated commitment to its own sovereignty which has seen it fight three wars against Italy, Somalia and Eritrea, and the country’s advocacy to institutionalize sovereignty norms at the global level. This contribution argues that Addis Ababa’s reliance on Moscow’s arms supplies and its diplomatic cover in the United Nations Security Council in the context of the Tigrayan conflict compromised its ability to defend the principle of sovereignty.

Uncivilian Power Germany: Why States Violate their Foreign Policy Master Roles

ABSTRACT This paper explores the reasons why states occasionally do not adhere to the behavioural expectations as prescribed by their foreign policy master roles. To that end, it proposes four potential drivers for such ‘role violations’, namely: exogenous pressure, political survival, lack of issue salience and ensuing bureaucratic decision-making, and unclear role demands in ambiguous decision contexts. Empirically, the paper examines the plausibility of those drivers for the case of Germany’s abstention in the United Nations Security Council vote on resolution 1973 on Libya. It suggests that in that particular case considerations of political survival made civilian power Germany act out of character.

Sino-Africa Relations Post-Covid-19: Issues for Consideration

Sino-Africa relations have been periodised into three phases. The first phase (1950s–1970s) includes the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949 and the decolonisation of African states. The second phase (1971–1990s) includes the drift of Sino-Soviet relations, the admission of China into the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), as well as the end of the Cold War. The third phase (2000s–2020) covers the inclusion of China into the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 2001, as well as the establishment of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) in 2010. This article considers the fourth phase of Sino-Africa relations, argued to have begun in 2020 post-Covid-19, taking place at a time of de-globalisation, the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war and the US-China trade war. We assert that the latter changing global dynamics must be considered in making sense of Sino-Africa relations today. The article argues that despite such a changing global political order, there have been continuities and changes in China’s relations with the African continent. This is evident in the tightening of its relations with Africa, irrespective of ongoing dynamics in global affairs. Despite concerns about the USA’s reprioritisation of Africa, the establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), vaccine diplomacy, and China and African States’ “neutrality” stance on various ongoing conflicts, it is safe to say that Sino-Africa relations will triumph even in this new phase.

Peran Dewan Keamanan PBB dalam Penyelesaian Sengketa Internasional: Studi Kasus Konflik Timur Tengah

The Middle East conflict is one of the longest and most complex conflicts in modern history, involving multiple countries and causing significant regional instability. This journal aims to analyze the role of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) in resolving international disputes, with a special focus on conflicts in the Middle East. Using qualitative methods with a case study approach, this research examines various UNSC interventions through secondary data analysis from research reports, journal articles, books and other reliable sources. The research results show that the UNSC has broad powers and authority to resolve conflicts, including issuing resolutions, implementing sanctions, sending peacekeeping troops, and taking military action if necessary. However, the UNSC faces various obstacles such as the use of veto rights by permanent members, conflicting national interests, limited resources, and inconsistent compliance by member countries. In conclusion, although the UNSC plays a crucial role in maintaining international peace and security, its effectiveness in resolving conflicts is highly dependent on the cooperation and commitment of all UN member states.

Coalition Army humanitarian assistance for the refugees from South Kurdistan on the Turkish border in 1991.

This study illustrates the amount and significant types of humanitarian assistance, which provided by the coalition forces to the displaced people from South Kurdistan on the Turkish-Iraqi border in 1991. The coalition forces arrived directly to help displaced people because they were around in the area. However, they provided the most necessary emergency supplies because they were capable to deliver hundreds of tons of humanitarian aid and basic necessities of life. Since they had the necessary equipment to carry out emergency supplies to distribute to displaced people in the Turkish-Iraqi border, especially dropping such emergency supplies by plane. The confirmation and adopted of Resolution 688 by the United Nations Security Council led to receive influx of humanitarian aid to the displaced people. The Western countries with the help of US, after confirmed the Resolution 688, played a major role in the making of no-fly zones above latitude (36) in the north ,and the making a peace zone (Safe haven,)in parts of Iraqi Kurdistan. Therefore, the coalition forces could easily deliver this humanitarian aid assistance to people in need and protect them from the repression of the Iraqi government. Later, the coalition forces built several (temporary) settlement camps near the city of Zakho in order to return the displaced people to the peace zone area. They provided humanitarian needs such as food, water and health for the displaced people in the center of these camps. Moreover, they rebuilt many service facilities along the ceasefire zone, saving thousands of lives and returning refugees to their homes.

Toward a Push-Pull Model of Leader Sensegiving During Crisis: A Content Analysis of United Nations Security Council Communications

Leader sensegiving during crisis situations has received limited empirical research attention in the management and organization literature, despite the important role it plays in addressing organizational crises. This study examines how the tone of leader sense-giving messages changes as crises unfold, so as to provide a point of departure for future research assessing the efficacy of sense-giving efforts amid crises. Toward this end, I develop a conceptual push-pull model of leader sensegiving in crisis, then test key relationships between crisis conditions, sensegiving activity, and leader message tone. Analysis of a sample of United Nations Security Council presidential statements suggests that increased leader sensegiving activity is associated with worsening crisis conditions and that leader messages tend to adopt a linguistic tone that is visceral and steeped in language that references forceful action when the intensity of crisis conditions is high. Furthermore, leader messages addressing deteriorating crises are associated with relatively high levels of exclusionary, aggressive language but low levels of collectiveness and praise. Directions for future leader sense-giving in crisis research are also discussed.

Introducing the Proscription of Armed Actors Dataset

States and international organizations have become increasingly willing to proscribe armed groups, labelling them terrorists and imposing legal, economic and political sanctions. To enable investigation into terror-listing and its effects, this paper introduces the Proscribed Armed Actors Dataset. The dataset records information on the proscription regimes maintained by 18 governments and multilateral organizations, including the European Union, all the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council and several regional powers in the Global South. Covering the 1979–2022 period, it records the proscription of 386 unique groups, including 93 groups listed as armed actors in Uppsala Conflict Data Program/Peace Research Institute Oslo conflict data, with information on listings, targeted groups and imposed sanctions. This paper introduces the dataset, provides descriptive patterns and discusses possible applications. To illustrate the utility of the data, we perform a quantitative analysis of the impact of terrorist designations on conflict intensity in civil wars, showing that both the source and characteristics of proscriptions shape belligerent behaviour.

Administrative and legal regime of martial law

Currently, Ukraine is under martial law. Historically, it is known that military conflicts of various nature and scale have become an integral feature of the evolution of mankind since ancient times. And therefore, in ancient times, war was a normal, natural state of nations, while peace was an accidental state. Humanity has become more aware of the value of life. However, in the 21st century, Ukraine faced events that, in our time, seemed to be unacceptable, and many citizens have the question of what the martial law regime is, what are its main aspects, taking into account their significant consequences for the normal life of the population. Martial law is a special legal regime introduced on the territory of Ukraine or in some of its localities, which gives the military command, state authorities, military administrations and local self-government bodies certain powers necessary to avert a potential threat, repel armed aggression and ensure national security within countries. The introduction of martial law is associated with the implementation of certain legal procedures provided for by national legislation. The introduction of martial law is carried out by the highest authorities of the state. Law of Ukraine No. 389-VIII «On the Legal Regime of Martial Law» establishes the procedure for introducing martial law in Ukraine. The National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine submits proposals for the introduction of martial law in Ukraine or in some of its localities for consideration by the President of Ukraine. In connection with the introduction of martial law in Ukraine, the constitutional rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen, provided for in Articles 30-34, 38, 39, 41-44, 53 of the Constitution of Ukraine, may be temporarily limited for the period of the legal regime of martial law, as well as to introduce temporary restrictions on the rights and legal interests of legal entities within the limits and to the extent necessary to ensure the possibility of introducing and carrying out measures of the legal regime of martial law, which are provided for by the first part of Article 8 of the Law of Ukraine «On the Legal Regime of Martial Law». Thus, in the event of the introduction of a legal regime of martial law, significant restrictions on the rights of both individuals and legal entities may be applied. However, such restrictions may occur except within the limits of temporary restrictions on the constitutional rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen, as well as the rights and legal interests of legal entities, provided for by the decree of the President of Ukraine on the introduction of martial law. Therefore, in the case of the initiation of the procedure for the introduction of the legal regime of martial law, as it happened in Ukraine, information on the features and main aspects of this regime is relevant and important.

The system of subjects of administrative and legal support of information security in Ukraine

Based on the analysis of current legislation, available scientific, journalistic and methodological sources, the article clarifies the content of the system of subjects of administrative and legal support of information security in Ukraine. It is proposed that the system of subjects of administrative and legal support of information security should be understood as a set of legislative, executive and judicial authorities, state, public and other organizations and associations, and citizens who may participate in administrative and legal support of information security in accordance with the legislation regulating relations in the field of information security. It is established that the system of subjects of administrative and legal support of information security includes a wide range of structures of both state and non-state affiliation. The first group (state entities) is represented by the State represented by the President of Ukraine, legislative, executive and judicial bodies, which, having different competencies in the field of administrative and legal support of information security, perform key tasks and functions in it. The second group (non-state actors) can be divided into two subgroups. The first one includes society represented by legal entities, namely, commercial companies and non-governmental organizations (educational institutions, research institutes, research and analytical centers, etc.) The second group includes individuals (citizens) who may be directly involved in ensuring information security, represented by specialists, experts, information security consultants, etc. It is proposed to: include all non-state actors in the mechanism for implementing the goals and objectives of the Information Security Strategy; make the widest possible use of the capabilities of non-state actors in this area, and therefore intensify the involvement of citizens, public associations, organizations, etc. in solving the problem of information security; create an Interagency Commission on Information Security within the structure of the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine.

The Difficulty of Reforming the United Nations Security Council

Abstract: In addition to the ongoing debate surrounding the imperative need to reform the UNSC, especially on the concept of veto power, this article offers another perspective. Using document analysis combined with triangulation of the secondary material as the methodology, this article explored the difficulty of reforming the UNSC. It adopts the realist theory as the framework that sees the concept of veto power as the main difficulty standing in the way of the reform despite the expressed commitment from the five permanent members of the UNSC and other countries. Although this article did not explicitly proffer a remedy to the problem discussed. However, how the author intellectualized and articulated the main issue could draw attention to the ongoing debate and clamor about the need to reform the UNSC veto power. Conclusively, this article doubts not the possibility but sees the use of veto power strategic to the interest of the U.S., China, and Russia as the major obstacle to the reform.

Teaching Critical Thinking With Argument Mapping

Critical thinking is the cornerstone of any undergraduate education. One technique for helping students develop critical thinking skills is argument mapping. Argument mapping involves diagraming the arguments for and against a proposition. The map also includes each piece of evidence used to support these arguments. Argument mapping can help students avoid confirmation bias by bringing attention to arguments and evidence which may run counter to their prior beliefs. It also prompts consideration of the strength of arguments and the quality of evidence. We describe how argument mapping can be incorporated in an undergraduate class and then present an example of a classroom exercise. The exercise involves mapping the arguments in a speech by American Secretary of State Colin Powell justifying the use of military force in Iraq before the United Nations Security Council in February 2013.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on conflict and health system–related violent events in Libya: An interrupted time series analysis

As a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the United Nations Security Council passed resolution S/RES2532 (2020), requesting the cessation of hostilities. Despite ceasefire initiatives, evidence suggests that both conflict and violent events remained unabated—and, in some cases, escalated during the first months of the pandemic. This study uses interrupted time series analyses to examine the impact of the pandemic on violent and non-violent political events—including health system-related violence—in Libya, which has been experiencing a protracted conflict since 2014. We find a reduction of approximately 21 battles (p < 0.001) only during the first month of the pandemic. However, overall, throughout the pandemic, there was an increase of roughly one battle per month (p < 0.001). The violence that affected healthcare workers decreased during the first year of the pandemic (p < 0.001); but by the second year the reduction in healthcare worker–related violence had dissipated. While the pandemic seems to have mitigated the level of violence experience by healthcare workers, the overall pattern of violence is a troubling one, particularly since they were observed while there is an international agreement for a ceasefire in place and a specific peace agreement occurring in Libya. The pattern suggests that policy to protect healthcare workers may need to be enhanced even more during crisis settings.