National Outdoor Leadership School Research Articles

Outdoor adventure education as a platform for developing environmental leadership

Abstract Notwithstanding actions taken to date through policy, programmes and practices, the planet remains on an unsustainable pathway. System level and individual actions are needed to address the challenges that confront us. Finding approaches to encourage individual pro‐environmental behaviours are important for shifting an individual's actions, and these changes can have systemic implications. Outdoor adventure education programmes represent an ideal context to research the development of pro‐environmental behaviours. For outdoor adventure education to effect both individual and system‐level change, it is necessary for participants to connect learning from programmes to wider contexts where they can leverage influence. One of the prominent transferable outcomes of outdoor adventure education is the ability to serve in a leadership role. This article addresses the following primary research question: What aspects of outdoor adventure education programmes promote pro‐environmental behaviour intentions among participants? It explores this by examining various learning mechanisms and design features of NOLS, a global expeditionary outdoor adventure education programme formerly known as the National Outdoor Leadership School. Data were collected and analysed from 202 NOLS programme participants from around the world through open‐ended responses completed as part of a questionnaire at the end of the programme. Results showed that the most prominent aspects of the outdoor adventure education programme that helped to promote pro‐environmental behaviour intentions were the building of conservation and environmental issue awareness, the practice of minimum impact techniques, and engagement in waste and food management. These programme aspects were produced through the learning mechanism domains of structure‐oriented learning, instructor‐oriented learning, environment‐oriented learning, instructor‐and‐student oriented learning and independent student‐oriented learning to varying degrees. Our results illuminate design features of outdoor adventure education that have potential to generate and support environmental commitment and show how pro‐environmental learning is mediated through broad exposure to an array of activities and learning mechanism domains. In combination with the leadership development components, our results suggest that outdoor adventure education programmes show promise for developing and supporting environmental commitment in individuals necessary for solving global environmental crises now and in the future. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

For What and For Whom is Camping in America?: A Review of Camping Grounds

Phoebe S. K. Young’s Camping Grounds: Public Nature in American Life from the Civil War to the Occupy Movement offers a history of the varied, at times conflicting reasons that Americans have set up camp and what their practices reflect about their evolving relationships to the natural world, their society and their government. With sections covering topics from the Grand Army of the Republic and John Muir, tramping and the loop campground, the National Outdoor Leadership School and activism, her work considers the economic, cultural, and political forces that have given rise to many of the major reasons and ways that diverse groups of Americans have pitched tents and set up camp. She challenges practitioners and scholars to consider more how the identities of who is camping and their motivations have mattered a great deal to how their practice has been perceived by the public, the government, and other campers.

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The role of a nature-based program in fostering multiple connections to nature

Reconnecting to nature is imperative for the sustainability of humans on Earth, offering a leverage point for system change. Connections to nature have been conceptualized as a typology of five types as follows: material; experiential; cognitive; emotional; and, philosophical, ranging from relatively shallow to deeper connections, respectively. Educational programs that immerse individuals in nature have been designed to build an appreciation for places travelled, awareness of environmental issues and to promote pro-environmental behaviours. Using quantitative and qualitative data from 295 individuals who participated in National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) programs ranging from 14 to 90 days, we tested hypotheses to understand whether and to what extent NOLS influenced the five types of connections to nature. We further investigated whether deeper connection types were associated with greater intentions for pro-environmental behaviours. Findings showed that individuals generally reported greater connections to nature after the NOLS program, with emotional and material connections increasing the most. While intentions for pro-environmental behaviour increased from pre- to post-program, deeper connections to nature did not correspond to greater intention for pro-environmental behaviour. The strongest predictor of intention for pro-environmental behaviour was a cognitive connection, though an emotional connection was also a significant predictor. Ultimately, we found that the NOLS program fosters multiple connections to nature and increases intentions for pro-environmental behaviour. We call for more research to understand the relationships among connection to nature types and how those interactions may influence intentions for pro-environmental behaviour—in nature-based educational programs and in other contexts.

Using transformative learning theory to understand outdoor adventure education

ABSTRACT Transformative learning (TL) theory has rarely been used in outdoor adventure education (OAE) research despite many students describing their courses as transformative. In this study, we applied TL theory to OAE to determine whether the outcomes students reported and the activities and processes used on course produce TL. We surveyed 139 National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) students using the Learning Activities Survey and interviewed 20 about whether they were transformed at NOLS and if so, how they were transformed. Our findings showed that OAE can be a catalyst for TL but it depends on the student and whether they have encountered a disorienting dilemma (or challenge to their usual frames of reference). OAE courses that challenge students while offering a supportive environment and time for reflection are more likely to promote TL. Educators seeking to provide TL should focus on reflection, challenge and support in their curriculum.

Assessing the Validity of Bioelectrical Impedance and Skinfold Calipers for Measuring Body Composition in NOLS Backcountry Hikers

The National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) conducts backcountry research in an effort to provide the most up-to-date support to its students. Past research efforts have used a variety of body composition measurement tools, including bioelectrical impedance (BIA), skinfold calipers, and air displacement plethysmography (Bod Pod), but these tools are not interchangeable. The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility and accuracy of the Tanita scale and the Harpenden skinfold calipers for assessing body composition in backcountry hikers. Twenty-two NOLS participants completed a 23-d backpacking trip into the Wind River Range in Wyoming. Pre- and postexpedition anthropometric measures were collected using 3 different body composition measurement tools: Tanita segmental body composition monitor, Harpenden skinfold calipers, and the Bod Pod. For the purposes of this study, the Bod Pod was used as the standard against which other methods were compared. Participants lost a significant amount of weight and fat during the expedition. Fat-free mass increased by 0.4±1.9 kg, but this did not reach significance. A high degree of reliability was found between skinfold calipers and the Bod Pod and between BIA and the Bod Pod. The BIA measurements significantly underreported body fat percentage when compared to the Bod Pod, whereas the skinfold measurements were not significantly different from the Bod Pod, but measurements were more variable. This study shows that the skinfold caliper and the Tanita scale give measurements comparable to the less readily available and more costly Bod Pod measurement in backcountry expedition participants.

NOLS and Nutcrackers: The Motivations, Barriers, and Benefits Experienced by Outdoor Adventure Educators in the Context of a Citizen Science Project

Outdoor adventure education (OAE) organizations teach interpersonal and wilderness skills in outdoor settings and often include an explicit commitment to environmental learning. Because OAE organizations typically engage young adults in wilderness areas, citizen science projects in this context have the potential to generate data in remote locations and involve younger audiences in citizen science. The author engaged NOLS (formerly the National Outdoor Leadership School) in the Clark’s Nutcracker Project, a contributory citizen science project, to investigate the impacts of habitat decline on a high-elevation bird species in Wyoming. During the first season of the project, I used online questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to identify the motivations, benefits, and barriers experienced by participating NOLS instructors and administrators. I found that instructors were most often motivated to participate in the project as a means to improve their environmental studies curriculum. Similarly, I found that instructors most often benefitted from the project’s capacity to serve as a teaching tool by providing a focus for curriculum objectives or fostering increased student awareness and student buy-in. Time limitations, study complexity, disappointment over absence data, and concerns about student data quality were the most often identified barriers to participation. In light of these findings, I recommend that citizen science projects within the OAE context should be very easy to implement and align well with existing curricula. For maximum impact, potential projects should focus on a readily visible study subject, be defined by a compelling need, and ideally connect to students’ lives beyond the backcountry.

Learning Transfer in Socioeconomically Differentiated Outdoor Adventure Education Students

Background: The relevance of outdoor adventure education (OAE) programs to diverse participants has been questioned by numerous scholars. Limited research exists about similarities in learning outcomes across categories of difference such as race and socioeconomic status. Purpose: This study focused on understanding how learning outcomes differed between students who did and did not receive scholarships to attend an OAE program and whether students apply what they learn in OAE to their lives similarly. Methodology/Approach: Twenty-one students who enrolled on a National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) course between 2010 and 2012 participated in semi-structured interviews 5 years after course completion. Half received scholarships. Participants were matched by course. Findings/Conclusions: Regardless of group, students reported learning comparable lessons and using what they learned in OAE similarly. What differed was the transfer context, meaning the conditions where students applied their learning. Scholarship students do vary demographically from non-scholarship students, but most students in both groups attended college during or after NOLS. This may explain why they applied their learning in similar ways. Implications: OAE practitioners can anticipate that most OAE students will learn the outcomes targeted through the program design and delivery regardless of scholarship status.

Trends in Skin and Soft Tissue-Related Injuries in NOLS Wilderness Expeditions from 1984 to 2012

Wilderness expeditions inevitably involve risk to participants. Understanding of expedition-related illnesses and injuries allows institutions and individuals to develop strategies to mitigate risk. We describe findings and trends in soft tissue injuries, the second-most common type of injury, among participants in the National Outdoor Leadership School expeditions from 1984 to 2012. Injuries and illnesses sustained by students and staff have been recorded continuously since 1984 in the extensive National Outdoor Leadership School database. We performed a retrospective analysis of incidence of soft tissue injuries in this population. Data before 1996 were standardized in order to make use of the entire dataset. Of 9734 total reported incidents, 2151 (22%) were soft tissue related, 707 (33%) of which required evacuation. The sex distribution of incidents was similar to the sex distribution of participants. The largest incidence of soft tissue injuries occurred independent of activity (711 incidents, 33%). The most commonly associated activities were hiking (528 incidents, 25%), camping (301 incidents, 14%), and cooking (205 incidents, 10%). Over the study period, rates of injury declined overall and in every individual category except cooking. Over this 28-year period, the incidence of soft tissue injuries associated with the most common activities decreased. Incidence of activity-independent injuries did not change significantly, but reported severity decreased. These data provide unique insights to help improve wilderness risk management for institutions and individuals and suggest areas in which educational efforts may further reduce risk.

Diversity in the Outdoors: National Outdoor Leadership School Students’ Attitudes About Wilderness

Outdoor experiential education (OEE) programs often cater to white, upper-class individuals. With major demographic shifts occurring in the United States, OEE organizations are confronting this imbalance. The National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) is addressing this issue with its Gateway Scholarship Program. The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to determine whether Gateway Scholarship and non-scholarship students held different wilderness attitudes and whether those attitudes changed following NOLS courses. A quantitative posttest and retrospective pretest was administered online ( n = 74), with follow-up telephone interviews ( n = 19). Results showed that Gateway students held less positive pre-course wilderness attitudes than non-Gateway students, but most post-course scores had converged. Both groups experienced positive change in wilderness attitudes. Interview data revealed potential reasons for attitude change and areas of possible concern about the conceptualization of wilderness promoted by NOLS.

Energy Balance: Assessing Dietary Intake and Changes in Body Composition During The National Outdoor Leadership School Courses

This study examined the relationship between dietary intake and changes in participants’ (N = 39) body composition during National Outdoor Leadership School courses. Body composition, height, and weight were measured pre- and posttrip. Participants completed food logs to record daily dietary intake. Changes in anthropometric measurements were analyzed using a paired samples t test. Correlation analyses were conducted to examine relationships between dietary intake parameters and anthropometric changes. Males lost an average of 3.4 (SD = 3.7) kg of weight and females lost 0.10 (SD = 1.6) kg. Males lost an average of 3.7 (SD = 2.7) kg of body fat and females lost an average of 1.5 (SD = 1.9) kg. In contrast, females showed greater gains in lean mass (1.5 ± 1.1 kg) than males (0.32 ± 2.3 kg) did. Average caloric intake for the total sample was 2,865.7 kcal/day (SD = 691.2). Overall, findings indicate that retention of lean body mass may have been due to both adequate carbohydrate and protein intake. Subscribe to JOREL

Human energy expenditure, allocation, and interactions in natural temperate, hot, and cold environments.

The aim of this research is to analyze how energy is allocated differently in temperate, hot, and cold environments among National Outdoor Leadership School students. Basal metabolic rate, physical activity, thermoregulation, and the thermic effect of food were estimated to determine the total energy expenditure and energy allocation differences among a group of healthy, highly active adults (N = 59) participating in National Outdoor Leadership School courses in the western United States. Two of these courses took place in both hot and temperate climates (N = 22) and the other two in both temperate and cold climates (N = 28). Data from a pilot study (N = 6) in a temperate climate were also included. Each climate regime lasted for one month. Total energy expenditure values were statistically equivalent in temperate and hot climates (p = .97). However, subjects experienced significantly higher total energy expenditures in cold climates (p < .0001), expending an additional ∼1550 kcalday-1 . There is a significant interaction between physical activity and thermoregulation, such that physical activity reduces thermoregulatory costs in cold climates, but increases it in hot climates. Dissection of the energy budget revealed that total energy expenditure is significantly higher in cold climates. This is due to a combination of high levels of physical activity and high thermoregulatory costs. High levels of physical activity may substantially lower the cost of thermoregulation in cold climates, and this interaction should be taken into account when estimating TEE.

The allocation and interaction model: A new model for predicting total energy expenditure of highly active humans in natural environments.

The purpose of this study was to develop a new model, the Allocation and Interaction Model (AIM), to better predict human total energy expenditure (TEE) among a group of highly active humans living in a variety of natural environments. AIM estimates were tested to determine if it produces more accurate TEE predictions than the Factorial Method. AIM includes metabolic cost terms for basal metabolic rate, thermoregulation, and the thermic effect of food, as well as more accurate activity cost estimations. AIM was tested using doubly labeled water and Flex-Heart Rate (Flex-HR)-measured TEEs of healthy, highly active adults (N = 59) participating in National Outdoor Leadership School semester-long courses. Data from a month-long pilot study (N = 6) were also included. AIM produced TEE estimates that were not significantly different from measured energy expenditure values. Overall, AIM came within 4.1% of measured values; the Factorial Method underestimated by over 25%. At TEEs greater than 3,000 kcalday(-1) , AIM underestimated TEE by 11% compared to 31.6% by the Factorial Method. Also, at TEEs greater than 3,000 kcalday(-1) , the Flex-HR method overestimated TEE by 17%. This analysis demonstrated that AIM is more accurate than the Factorial Method for predicting TEE across a range of climates and physical activity levels. This suggests that AIM should be used in place of the Factorial Method for estimating human TEE. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 28:372-380, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Foreword

vii Foreword Research in Outdoor Education (ROE), the official journal of the Coalition for Education in the Outdoors, is a peer-reviewed, scholarly journal seeking to support and further outdoor education and its goals, including personal growth and moral development, team building and cooperation, outdoor knowledge and skill development, environmental awareness, education and enrichment, and research that directly supports systematic assessment and/ or evidence-based advances in outdoor education. The journal is intended to appeal to researchers, practitioners, teachers, and post-secondary students through the exploration and discussion of diverse perspectives on the theoretical , empirical, and practical aspects of outdoor education in its broadest sense. Research in Outdoor Education aims to: 1. Improve the understanding of outdoor education through the critical examination of issues, trends, practices and conceptualizations of outdoor education in contemporary society. 2. Disseminate and unite current outdoor education research and theories and their implications and applications for practice in a wide range of contexts . 3. Offer a medium through which practitioners, researchers, and students can exchange and debate ideas and research. 4. Complement the existing body of knowledge related to outdoor education. The Coalition for Education in the Outdoors is a nonprofit network of outdoor and environmental education centers, nature centers, conservation and recreation organizations, outdoor education and experiential education associations , institutions of higher learning, public and private schools, fish and wildlife agencies, and businesses that share a mission: the support and furtherance of outdoor education and its goals. Founders believed the Coalition would fill a need in the outdoor education community for an organization that “would unite outdoor associations, institutions, businesses, and agencies to better serve both professionals and consumers in the outdoors.” Beginning with this 2015 issue (volume 13), Dr. Tim O’Connell and Dr. Garrett Hutson from Brock University have assumed the role of co-editors of ROE. We, and the Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Research Committee , wish to extend a heartfelt thank you to past editor, Alan Ewert, and assistant editor, Yun Chang for their leadership and strengthening of the journal. Due to their efforts and vision, ROE continues to publish high-quality research viii studies related to education in the out-of-doors. We also wish to extend a thank you to Sagamore Publishing for its continued support, development, and refinement of ROE. Volume 13 contains four articles for your reading and thinking enjoyment. The issue starts with a paper from past ROE editor, Alan Ewert, titled “The Use of Biomarkers in Outdoor Education Research: Promises, Challenges, and the Development of Evidence.” This paper argues that biomarkers such as cortisol may be another important type of data that can broaden outdoor education research. The second paper by Jeremy Jostad, Jim Sibthorp, Mandy Pohja, and John Gookin is titled “The Adolescent Social Group in Outdoor Adventure Education: Social Connections That Matter.” This paper investigates how students from 22 different National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) courses connected socially with their groups as well as what factors influence those connections. The third paper, by Tracy Mainieri and Denise Anderson, is titled “‘There Was More Out There than Our Street’: Exploring Summer Camp Programming as a Context to Foster Social Capital and Civic Engagement after Camp.” This paper explores the connections between camp programming and its potential to foster social capital and civic engagement in campers’ home communities. The final paper in this issue by Barry Garst, Sarah Baughman, Anja Whittington, and Ryan Gagnon is titled “Influences of Resident Camp Experiences on Career Choice: A Case Study of Female Alumnae.” This paper explores the long-term impacts of camp experiences on the future career paths of women. The quality of the aforementioned papers is directly due to the commitment and rigor of both the authors and the anonymous reviewers of the papers featured within this issue. We are actively exploring ways to increase the exposure of ROE. We ask that all of those associated with the Coalition for Education in the Outdoors continue to get the word out about ROE to potential authors and reviewers, especially to those who have not submitted a paper or served as reviewers in the past. In closing, we are grateful for the opportunity to sustain and hopefully expand...

A four-year follow-up of means-end outcomes from outdoor adventure programs

Means-end theory was used to analyze differences in outcomes from original interviews and follow-up interviews occurring four years after Outward Bound (OB) and National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) 2006 course participation. In 2006, a semi-structured, in-person interview was conducted after participants (N = 510) completed their course. In 2010, semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted from a convenience sample of the original participants (N = 200). Results of this study show how OB and NOLS programs continued to increase participant self-respect/esteem/confidence, impart transferable lessons and skills, and provide a sense of self-awareness four years after course participation. Understanding such participant outcomes allows program managers to effectively market programs, comprehend relationships between program attributes and participant outcomes, and design programs for specific outcomes.

Autonomous Student Experiences in Outdoor and Adventure Education

This article explores the current state of knowledge regarding the use of autonomous student experiences (ASE) in outdoor and adventure education (OAE) programs. ASE are defined as components (e.g., solo, final expedition) in which participants have a greater measure of choice and control over the planning, execution, and outcomes of their learning. The article discusses the importance of ASE in experiential education and reviews major findings and supporting evidence in the relevant literature. Outward Bound and the National Outdoor Leadership School are highlighted as OAE programs that incorporate evidence-based research into their course designs. The article concludes with an examination of existing gaps in the knowledge and a discussion of topics for future ASE research.

Understanding groups in outdoor adventure education through social network analysis

Relationships are a critical component to the experience of an outdoor adventure education (OAE) program, therefore, more fruitful ways of investigating groups is needed. Social network analysis (SNA) is an effective tool to study the relationship structure of small groups. This paper provides an explanation of SNA and shows how it was used by the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) to understand the relationship patterns among different course compositions with students receiving and not receiving scholarships (course compositions included two students, 50% of students, and all students receiving scholarship). Data were collected from three 30-day courses at three different time points throughout the course and were based on two dimensions of cohesion (social and task). The findings suggest that the most homogeneous group (in regard to scholarship recipients) possessed greater social cohesion and the least homogenous group possessed greater task cohesion. Social network analysis should be used more frequently in OAE because it offers a flexible approach to understand groups and group processes.

The Development of Prosocial Behavior in Adolescents

Learning transfer and prosocial behavior (PSB) are critical components of many outdoor education programs for adolescents. This study examined the effects of a theoretically grounded treatment curriculum designed to foster the transfer of learning of general and contextual PSB (also called expedition behavior) among adolescents enrolled on 14-day backpacking courses with the National Outdoor Leadership School. Results suggest that the treatment curriculum increased proximal learning of PSB more than courses that featured the traditional curriculum. Qualitative results suggested that students learned PSB primarily as a result of its relevance to the expedition environment, that it is most useful when working with or understanding others, and that it can be applied to multiple contexts post-course, including with family, at school, and with sport teams. Implications for designing a curriculum that fosters transfer and for developing PSB in participants are considered.

“Black and white thinkers” and “colorful problems”: Understanding student thinking in outdoor education

Effective outdoor educators need to understand the developmental characteristics of students to best tailor programs to capitalize upon their capabilities. To the extent that learning is a primary objective of outdoor education programs, understanding our students' intellectual processes, specifically, can enhance our effectiveness in achieving this goal. This article presents several frameworks for understanding the developmental knowledge construction of adolescent, college-aged, and young adult students that were developed in traditional education settings. The purpose of this study was to determine the relevance of these models in an adventure education setting. Qualitative data were collected from students of the National Outdoor Leadership School. Results indicate that, despite differences between traditional and adventure learning environments and the types of problems students encounter in those settings, established framework of developmental knowledge construction are observable in the outdoor education classroom. Implications for teaching to developmentally different populations of students are discussed.

Wilderness-Based Semester Learning: Understanding the NOLS Experience

The purpose of this study was to begin to identify what students learn from semester-length wilderness-based courses that they may not learn from shorter courses. Students on semester-length courses from the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) were asked to respond to the open ended question: “What did you learn on your semester course that you could not have learned if your course had only been 30 days long?” The responses of 468 students were analyzed individually via constant comparison. Eight themes were generated from the responses and the most prominent theme, “expedition behavior,” was further analyzed via constant comparison and divided into five subthemes. These findings are related to the concept of overlearning and provide insight into the concept of expedition behavior. Due to the limited understanding of learning on wilderness-based semester-length courses, this research provides a starting point to begin to recognize what students learn on these courses.