National Middle School Association Research Articles

Students taking action together: Social action in urban middle schools

Teaching character virtues and social–emotional skills in isolation of social–political context is incomplete at best. Further, racial and ethnic inequity in social action and political influence spans from youth to adults and must be addressed (Kahne & Middaugh, 2008b). Middle school is a crucial developmental time to cultivate students’ social–emotional and character competencies alongside their social actions promoting positive change (Jones & Kahn, 2017). This article describes how our social–emotional and character development curriculum, called Mastering Our Skills and Inspiring Character (MOSAIC), inspired students to improve their school, community, and world. The lessons required students to engage in the kind of active learning that the Association for Middle Level Education champions through its statement, This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents, by applying the skills they learn in the classroom to relevant social issues (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010). Our article brings this approach to life by illustrating its use in an under-resourced, highly stressed, urban school system.

Teenagers Perceptions of Teachers: A Developmental Argument

Using the concept of a developmental lens (Brighton, 2007; Caskey & Anfara, 2014; Davis, 2006; J-F, Pullen, & Carroll, 2013; National Middle School Association, 2010; Peterson, 2010), this article focuses on young teenage students’ perceptions of teachers. School teachers play an important role in the educational development of teenagers but little is known about how teachers cater for teenage students’ social, emotional, physical and cognitive developmental domains. Even less is known about teenage students’ perceptions of their teachers. The current study asked a cohort of Year 9 students in a secondary school in Brisbane, Australia (N=182) to comment on what they “liked” about their teachers. The students’ responses were mapped against each of the four developmental domains. Analysis of the data showed that students’ emotional and social domains were more salient than their physical and cognitive domains. Specifically, the young teenage students reported liking their teachers when the teachers’ were emotionally positive and socially accommodating. The findings of this paper are discussed via a developmental lens with regard to the implications for teacher education.

Four professors, three universities, two modes of technology, and one eighth grade classroom: Collaboration in middle level teacher education

This article focuses on four university teacher educators across three mid-western institutions working together to collaborate and develop a shared understanding of practice in middle level teacher education while modeling a team approach to teaching and learning. Three institutions, University of Louisville (UL), University of Kentucky (UK), and Northern Kentucky University (NKU), are located in what is generally termed the “Golden Triangle of Kentucky” (Berger, Bollinger, & Perry, 2002). Louisville, Lexington, and Northern Kentucky-Greater Cincinnati Area are each separated by less than 100 miles and are connected by major interstate highways (Berger et al., 2002; McBrayer, 2011). As teacher educators in this region, we have found it common for teacher candidates from each of our respective universities to accept positions at the same middle schools within this geographic area. Technological advances provide collaborative spaces for anyone to use as a place to engage in teaming activities in middle grades education. In this era of technology innovation, we now have the privilege of giving our teacher candidates and students access to educational and classroom settings previously inaccessible because of geographical or financial restraints. We utilized technology and teaming to provide a simultaneous, virtual experience for our students to learn together in a common space. In the spirit of This We Believe (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010), we hope our teaming through cross-institutional collaboration will spark ideas and inspiration for other middle grades teacher preparation programs, school districts, middle school teams and teachers. It is our hope that through this promising collaboration of four professors, three universities, and one eighth grade classroom, we not only help others use technology to eliminate geographical restraints to teaming, but also develop a shared understanding of effective middle level practices that will positively impact the middle school experience for young adolescents in our state.

Passion is not enough: Preparing middle level preservice teachers to be advocates for change

This article illustrates the critical need for middle level preservice teachers to be explicitly prepared to engage in reform-oriented advocacy. To illustrate this point, we present the experiences of four reform-minded student teachers who attempted to enact developmentally responsive curriculum, as defined in This We Believe (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010) during their student teaching semester. Their experiences underscore the challenges student teachers face in attempting to advocate for middle school best practices. After providing an overview of these challenges, we use the insights of the participants to propose the following set of advocacy skills: (1) building rapport; (2) educating, not intimidating; (3) anticipating concerns; (4) reflecting before reacting; and (5) establishing communication norms. We then present several concrete implications for middle level teacher preparation programs that aim to prepare preservice teachers to be advocates for change in their future schools.

Using the visual and performing arts to complement young adolescents’ “close reading” of texts

The educational needs of young adolescents require that curricula include a more expanded set of multiple integrative approaches, including new literacies, and that it be “challenging, exploratory, integrative, and relevant” (National Middle School Association, 2010). Although educators are now focusing on the addition of digital formats to expand presentation of content material in classroom activities, the role of visual and performing arts in these same academic experiences may not be receiving as much attention. Researchers have shown the importance of these aesthetic approaches, and national standards have provided mandates for meeting middle grade students’ educational requirements (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). In an effort to provide middle grade educators with ideas and students with formats that balance their instruction and motive/engage all students regardless of levels of achievement, a review of research is provided to support these approaches, and two examples of effective classroom activities are explained.

You say, “cariño”; I say, “caring”: Latino newcomer immigrant families in the middle

One of the 16 core beliefs of middle level thinking is that schools and families must work together on behalf of every young adolescent (National Middle School Association, 2010). However, in classrooms and on curriculum nights, communication emerges as a critical issue. This is especially true when it comes to teachers’ interacting with Latino immigrant newcomer families. That is to say, in our regional context, the vast majority of middle level educators and administrators are monolingual English speakers; they themselves often see their monolingualism/culturalism as a stumbling block for communicating caring to Latino parents and the trust such caring generates. A recurring question we encounter in our various teacher education courses and on-site with our partners is: “How can teachers and institutions demonstrate a language and practice of caring in situations when they do not necessarily speak the same language?” Drawing from intercultural communication theory, we outline two over-arching intercultural communication principles that can be leveraged for communicating our interconnectedness and interdependence within and beyond increasingly culturally and linguistically diverse schooling contexts. Our intent here is more than to argue that we should care. Rather, we hope to provide practitioners with concrete intercultural “moves” for initiating the safe, productive learning spaces where Latino newcomer families can engage in the collaborative work of schools

Hunting for Treasures Through Learning

As the National Middle School Association wrote, “No other age level is of more enduring importance because the determinants of one’s behavior as an adult, self concept, learning interests and skills, and values largely are formed in this period of life.” During this influential time in the lives of gifted adolescents, it is important to expose students to a variety of experiences and educational topics. Geocaching, a high-tech scavenger hunt, is one rewarding strategy that supports the growth of gifted students’ emotional, social, and intellectual being through the wide variety of topics addressed, the problem-solving skills involved, and the collaboration required with peers. This manuscript examines the incorporation of geocaching into the middle school classroom as a means to motivate gifted young adolescent learners.

Literacy Lessons in One Language Arts Sixth-Grade Classroom: The Year of the Guinea Pigs

Over the years I've come to appreciate how animals enter our lives prepared to teach and far from being burdened by an inability to speak they have many different ways to communicate. It is up to us to listen more than hear... (Trout, 2010, p.XV).All classrooms are active social systems; the middle school classroom involves complex interactions between and among peers as well as between students and teachers. the elementary years, attention is often given to nurturing students and fostering relationships, yet when young adolescents transition to the middle school, a focus on control and discipline tends to be the norm (Schmakel, 2008), contrary to the middle school model with a primary emphasis on relationships and democratic community where students have responsibility for exploration, integration, and the development of selfworth for all. Indeed, this ideal drives the Association for Middle Level Education's (formerly National Middle School Association [NMSA]) position paper (2010) that presents four attributes of a successful middle grades school: developmentally responsive, challenging, empowering, and equitable.This article centers itself in the premise that all humans desire a sense of belonging; this craving is achieved through positive, persistent, caring relationships (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). But fostering relationships require the capacity for interpersonal attention. Thus, to develop this capacity, one must engage in caregiving activities (McHugh, Horner, Colditz, & Wallace, 2013; Noddings, 2002).Given this foundation for understanding young adolescents, the year I taught sixth graders, I decided I wanted a pet for the classroom-a guinea pig to be exact. During pre-planning, I brought my request to the principal. His response was, Why? His question was expected, and I began to discuss the nature of young adolescents as the basis for my rationale. I focused specifically on the social and emotional needs of young adolescents and how a safe and positive environment is needed for learning to occur. I went on to share how providing for a pet would allow the students to see how actions directly impact another being, and the sense of pride and accomplishment that can come from caring for another life. Affording these opportunities via a class pet could serve as a bridge to developing positive relationships with peers. I closed with the statement, In short, middle school students and guinea pigs are the perfect combination. Although not entirely convinced, the principal acquiesced.Accepting the guinea pigs into the learning community afforded the students opportunities to participate in providing care for another while nurturing a sense of belonging. A few examples of the positive impact the pets had on the students' social and emotional development and sense of belonging throughout the school year are highlighted here. While the guinea pigs interacted with all classes, the students in the intensive reading class experienced the deepest bond with these class pets.Symbiotic relationshipsWhen Delmus entered the classroom furious about something that had taken place in the hall, I asked him if he could give Oreo a little love. He lifted her from her cage, cradled her in his arm, and petted her with such a delicate touch. Oreo helped calm the anger raging inside Delmus.Roderick took to Angel immediately, as she was the tiny one, and he, too, was the smallest student in the class. Roderick was picked on by students throughout the day... especially in the halls and at lunch, but he developed a relationship with Angel and found solace in her company.Alisha and Keosha referred to themselves as the babysitters. While the cages were cleaned throughout the day, all students took ownership of the Good Housekeeping Award, but Alisha and Keosha came in every morning before school to check on the guinea pigs and make sure their babies started the day with clean cages. …

Deconstruction Geography: A STEM Approach

Strong teacher leaders help to ensure that middle level ideals have fruition in actual practice as demonstrated when featured teachers collaborated to open a new middle school focused on STEM education.IntroductionWalking into a seventh grade geography classroom one day filled me with excitement and a lot of questions. direction will this project take this year? How will students' hands and minds come together to reach the essential understandings? How can one facilitate so many thoughts, so much tinkering, and active exploration into a coherent journey of learning? How can learning experiences and units have accessibility for the multiple levels of seventh grade physical, mental, and emotional development? All of these questions had an acknowledgement of support when juxtaposed with the building administrator's words, Real learning is often messy.The previous evening of preparation resulted in lining the back counter in the classroom with old printers, fax machines, DVD players, VCRs, computers, vacuum cleaners. Smaller artifacts such as remote controls, alarm clocks, handheld games, and cellular phones were placed at the front of the room. When the students arrived, their curiosity was evident. Their hands were busy; the Do not touch signs ignored in the flurry of excitement. The students had heard about this project from the upperclassmen, and questions shot out of their mouths before their minds fully processed them. What are we doing? Can I take the vacuum apart? Who brought the computers? What does all of this have to do with class? Answering no one at the risk of being bombarded further, the teacher said, It will all be clear very soon. Take your seats please. It's time to start Deconstruction Geography.This article will define the engineering design process used to create an integrated curriculum at STEM Center Middle School, and it features the planning, implementation, and revision of the Deconstruction Geography unit. The article that follows also includes a description of the middle school where Deconstruction Geography was born and where STEM forms a central focus for the entire school.The STEM centerThe Science Technology Engineering and (STEM) Center opened in the fall of 2009 as a way to relieve overcrowding at the district's only other middle school. The building that houses the STEM Center has a robust, cold war era construction that had been repurposed many times, and now its service as a STEM middle school proves that 21st century learning can happen in any environment. Despite its overcrowding, the district's original middle school is newer and larger than its STEM alternate, but students opt to enroll in the STEM Center largely because of a one-to-one netbook initiative that put a small laptop computer in the hands of every student. The teachers at the new STEM Center were a mix of volunteer transfers and new hires, empowered by the opportunity to create a school from the ground up. With a mission of a student-centered, dream-oriented educational program, the teachers came together before the school year began with documents including This We Believe {National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010) and Partnership for the 21st century Education's Framework for 21st Century Skills (2011). While each teacher brought unique talents and knowledge, all shared a value for collaboration and a genuine desire to provide studentcentered education grounded in the principles of middle school philosophy that included interdisciplinary teacher teams and connected instructional planning. Training for the implementation of the STEM curriculum was provided by Valley City State University. The workshop centered on the Building Math series from the Museum of Science, Boston (2012). The connected ideas present in this curriculum gave the teams a place to begin.The STEM approachThe experience of a metadisciplinary (Werth, 2003), fully connected, and integrated curriculum was transformative for the teachers at the STEM Center. …

The Intersection between 1:1 Laptop Implementation and the Characteristics of Effective Middle Level Schools

The number of middle level schools adopting 1:1 laptop programs has increased considerably during the past decade (e.g., Lowther, Strahl, Inan, & Bates, 2007; Storz & Hoffman, 2013; Texas Center for Educational Research, 2009). The cornerstone practices of the middle school concept (National Middle School Association, 2010), therefore, often serve as the backdrop for 1:1 implementation. The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the intersection between 1:1 program implementation and the characteristics of effective middle schools associated with the middle school concept over a four-year period. Through ongoing participant observation, individual interviews, focus groups, and reviews of digital student work and documents, we explored the implementation of a 1:1 program by one middle school team that also espoused the middle school concept. We begin by providing perspectives on 1:1 programs and on the middle school concept from research and theoretical lenses. We then describe the qualitative methodology we employed to conduct this study. Next, we present an analysis of our findings, illustrating the opportunities, tensions, and trajectories that appeared when we examined 1:1 implementation alongside the characteristics of effective middle level schools. Finally, we explore the implications of these findings for middle level educators, school leaders, and other stakeholders as they adopt 1:1 programs in schools for young adolescents.

Media Literacy Is Common Sense: Bridging Common Core Standards with the Media Experiences of Digital Learners

Findings from a case study highlight the benefits of an integrated model of literacy, thereby illustrating the relevance and accessibility of media literacy education.Walk down any middle grades hallway after school and you are likely to observe a variety of student interactions. On the surface, these interactions may appear as routine events, but the details have gone digital with the advent and accessibility of mobile media technologies. More often than not, a mobile phone or other screenbased technology is a focal point in the lives of young adolescents. Middle school students are accessing local, national, and global information via social, political, and entertainment outlets. These media influence and impact the developmental characteristics of adolescents, including the physical, cognitive, moral, psychological, and social-emotional dimensions of development (National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010, p. 43). More than any other time in history, the coming of age experiences and identity development of young adolescents are largely mediated by a slew of multimodal texts. For educational professionals, the implication of students' increased engagement with media is that to help students develop the knowledge, skills, and dispositions to live, contribute, and thrive in the digital world of the 21st century, we need to amend how we think about texts and diversify the kinds of texts we choose to integrate into our curricula.Although most mobile devices are small, fitting in the palm of one's hand or pocket, the cumulative time young adolescents spend seeking, streaming, and sharing digital content is striking, totaling nearly 12 hours of media exposure per day (Rideout, Roberts, 8c Foehr, 2010). In an effort to promote critical engagement with media content, many teachers, family members, administrators, and policymakers are advocating for media literacy education.Media literacy is a set of augmented literacy skills that respond to the culture of multimodal information, ideas, and communication media that young adolescents experience. In short, media literacy is the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create texts in all forms (Hobbs, 2010). In conjunction with printed, alphabetic texts, media literacy recognizes and values the complex assortment of non-print and non-alphabetic texts (Gainer, 2013) that comprise our daily reading-such as pictures, television, movies, songs, video games, and websites-and provides teaching strategies for promoting active, critical reading of these media as texts. Thoman and Jolis (2004) explain:If our children are to be able to navigate their lives through this multi-media culture, they need to be fluent in 'reading' and 'writing' the language of images and sounds just as we have always taught them to 'read' and 'write' the language of printed communications, (p. 19)To create and implement responsive and relevant learning experiences that address the developmental level and cultural identities of middle school students, it is essential that our definition of text reflects changing communication forms, and expands to include both print and non-print sources.The purpose of this article is to investigate the concept of texts and how the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) affords teachers opportunities to implement media literacy education, in turn providing developmentally and culturally responsive middle level practice and promoting 21st century skills. This has implications for middle level teachers seeking to meet and move beyond Common Core Standards in ways that extend and expand notions of text while also supporting middle level practice and 21st century skills.The article begins by contextualizing media use by adolescent learners in the 21st century, briefly reporting the time teens spend with media and technology and how the media affects them. This discussion is followed by a brief examination of the Common Core's concept of texts, seeking to define the concept in alignment with research and scholarship on 21st century skills. …

Heterogeneous Peer-Tutoring: An Intervention That Fosters Collaborations and Empowers Learners

IntroductionIn this scenario, Nick, an accelerated algebra student who is taking algebra a year early, was the assigned tutor and Heather, a pre-algebra student, was the intended tutee. They were among the 14 students who participated in a Heterogeneous Peer Tutoring (HPT) program designed by the classroom mathematics teacher.Thirty minutes remain until the end of the school day. Fourteen eighth grade students, in an academic assistance period known as advisory, are seated in pairs dispersed throughout a classroom. The students are working on a problem set of classifying linear and nonlinear functions. The classroom teacher, Jake, is circulating the room monitoring students' progress. The teacher frequently questions the students to gauge their understanding of linear and nonlinear functions. While some students are able to explain the key characteristics of linear and nonlinear functions, many others are unable to do so. Two students, Nick and Heather (pseudonyms), are working on a problem that requires them to determine if a given function is linear or nonlinear. Nick is having trouble comprehending this topic and seeks Heather's help. Collaboratively, they discuss possible solution processes to the problem. A few minutes before the end of the advisory, Jake asks Nick, Do you know which of these functions are nonlinear and which are linear? Nick correctly identifies the functions. Jake poses a follow up question: How can you tell the difference between the two, especially with these problems where there is no graph provided? Calm and collected, Nick explains that the functions containing variables with exponents not equal to one are nonlinear. Nick extends his response by referring to a graph, clearly identifying the piece that makes the function non-liner. The teacher is impressed. Nick's partner Heather leans forward and says, He learned that from me, beaming with pride. Nick happily acknowledges.The goal of the program was to help pre-algebra students (tutees) deepen their knowledge of mathematical concepts by providing them an opportunity to collaborate with their peers-accelerated algebra students (tutors). The above snippet provides one instance of students' learning process. Evident also in this example is a role reversal between a tutor and a tutee. Over the duration of the program, the tutees and tutors gained a mutual respect for one another as they realized that they could both learn from each other's distinctive learning experiences. In this paper, we outline key features of an HPT program that was implemented with a group of middle school students, and we describe how this program impacted both the tutors' and the tutees' learning experiences. In so doing, we outline how this model could be used to enact some of the essential attributes of a middle level education program as outlined in the position paper of the Association for Middle Level Education (formerly National Middle School Association), This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (NMSA, 2010).Peer tutoring: An overviewPeer tutoring is a strategy in which, People from similar social groupings who are not professional teachers [help] each other to learn and [learn] themselves by teaching (Topping, 1996, p. 322). There are many forms of peer tutoring such as class-wide peer tutoring, homogeneous peer tutoring, and heterogeneous peer tutoring. Class-wide peer tutoring enables students in a class to tutor one another (Allsopp, 1997). In a homogeneous tutoring environment tutees and tutors are of the same ability level. In contrast, in a heterogeneous tutoring environment, tutees are taught by tutors of a higher ability level (Stenhoff 8c Lignugaris/Kraft, 2007). Many teachers have used an HPT technique as an intervention strategy to enhance student learning in reading, science, and mathematics (Robinson, Schofield, 8c SteersWentzell, 2005). In an academic setting, the use of peer tutoring in heterogeneous classrooms allows students of different learning backgrounds to collaborate and learn together, which often helps remove stigmas associated with receiving tutoring (Allsopp, 1997). …

Creating Cultures of Participation to Promote Mathematical Discourse

IntroductionAs a former eighth grade mathematics teacher, I was aware of the impact discourse had in shaping students' thinking and thus often implemented strategies that supported these efforts. However, a reality became clear when pursuing these National Board Certification, which demanded a 15-minute unedited video of me facilitating a whole-class discussion. While recording the lesson, which centered on an introduction to irrational numbers, I thought students were engaged in lively discussion. However, analysis of the video-taped lesson revealed that I was doing almost all of the talking! The perceptions of my practice were not aligned with my actual practice. After this revelatory experience, I was curious to learn more about how other teachers perceived the use of discourse to support adolescents reasoning in mathematics and particularly how they created cultures of participation to support equitable discursive interactions with adolescent students from diverse backgrounds.Consistent with my own experience, equitable access to mathematically rich and meaningful learning experiences continues as a critical need in the classroom (Cobb 8c Hodge, 2011; National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2010). Rich learning experiences also are fundamental in supporting and developing students' mathematical reasoning and sense making (Chapin, O'Connor, 8c Canavan Anderson, 2003), which is of particular concern during the middle grades as the level of abstraction in mathematics increases greatly. As a means of openly engaging in understanding meaningful and rich mathematics, discourse offers one avenue for teachers to create equitable and mathematically rich learning environments and interactions; this article demonstrates why an emphasis on mathematical discourse should be a common practice within the middle level classroom (Bartolini Bussi, 1998).Discourse requires students to evaluate and interpret the perspectives, ideas, and mathematical arguments of others as well as construct valid arguments of their own. That is, students develop deeper understandings of mathematics when they engage in meaningful social interactions such as whole class discourse (Cobb, Yackel, W NCTM, 1991; Rigleman, 2010). The adoption of the Common Core State Standards in many states reinforces the importance of creating classrooms that focus on reasoning, deep conceptual understanding, and the communication of mathematics (Larson, 2012;NCTM, 2000). In addition, the teacher's efforts and attitudes in creating a caring and well-structured classroom environment with high expectations for all students are more likely to increase student engagement (Klem 8c Connell, 2004), which can lead to greater achievement (Smith, Rook, 8c Smith, 2007). Such classrooms exemplify cultures of participation. With that said, knowing that discourse can support student learning and creating the structures to help discourse come alive are not the same thing. Creating a classroom culture of participation is a necessary first step in implementing meaningful discourse and creating equitable learning experiences.What follows is a compilation of strategies and classroom structures from 13 middle level teachers from highly urban communities with tremendous cultural, linguistic, and ethnic diversity. …

100 Words: Becoming an Advocate One Essay at a Time

This article highlights how implementing a particular writing experience fosters the development of relationships between students and teachers.Being an advocate for young adolescents is as critical now as when This We Believe was first published. Being an advocate means actively keeping students' best interests in mind, building strong and positive relationships, and then creating supportive and caring learning environments for all students. Much attention over the last decade has emphasized the need for rigorous and relevant curriculum for adolescents (Caskey, 2002; Darling-Hammond 8c Friedlaender, 2008; National Middle School Association [NMSA], 2003; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2011). However, relationships, the third R in this group, remains one of the most critical components when advocating for adolescents (BeatyO'Ferrall, Green, 8c Hanna, 2010; Mo 8c Singh, 2008).Despite the focus on implementing rigorous content standards, building relationships with students cannot be overlooked or set aside in planning and developing instruction (Klem 8c Connell, 2004). Teachers need to understand students in a more personal way than just as learners of content in order to develop meaningful relationships with students. This means deeply understanding the typical and enduring needs of adolescents, and the specific needs of students. In essence, advocating for students means understanding them as individuals, how they see the world, how to help them develop strong and positive self-concepts, and then using these understandings to improve learning experiences in the classroom (Ladd, Birch, 8c Buhs, 1999; Pajares 8c Schunk, 2001; Parker, 2010).However, understanding what it means to be a young adolescent becomes increasingly more difficult as social, societal, political, and environmental factors change in our world. The challenges facing adolescents today are not the same challenges that most educators faced when they were adolescents. The ubiquitous access to technology and social media is but one example. Understanding students as individuals within the classroom may help with planning and instruction, but it also may help teachers better understand students' families and communities (Eccles, 8c Harold, 1996). Thus, educators need to be continually aware of the unique and localized needs of adolescents in their classrooms. In doing so they may more effectively create safe and supportive learning environments, better support students as individuals, and attend to the unique cultural differences (Jackson & Davis, 2000).Reflection in 100 wordsGaining a deeper understanding of my students as individuals, as members of various groups, and their cultural ties seemed overwhelming at first. Yet, with the use of a simple and short essay, I was able to quickly understand how they viewed the world around them and their role within it. I decided to ask my advisory class, students I saw for two 30-minute periods each day, to respond to the following prompt: Describe in 100 words, what is it like to be your age? This prompt was given only once within the first couple of months of school after several weeks of working closely with these students and developing their trust and respect, though it could be repeated throughout the school year. I told them that I wanted to better understand what life was like for them so that I could learn to be a better teacher.When the time came to assign the essay, I informed the class that their responses would not be shared with anyone they might know-parents, classmates, or other adults at school. As such, in order to continue to respect this anonymity, students are not referred to by name in any of the responses below. I shared my belief that sometimes adults do not understand what teenagers experience in life and school, and that by better understanding their perspectives, I could then make better decisions on how to meet their needs as their teacher. Needless to say, their initial responses and reactions included many rolling eyes and groans, yet students quickly began writing. …

Planning, Implementing, and Assessing an Authentic Performance Task in Middle Grades Classrooms

Student engagement often suffers in the wake of teaching to high-stakes tests, but this article offers an alternative view of high-quality instruction, accountability, relevance, and resultsAs young adolescents, middle grades students experience a wide variety of changes related to their cognitive capabilities, social and emotional well-being, and use of self-regulation strategies (Wigfield 8c Eccles, 2002). Such changes help to explain research findings suggesting a decrease in students' academic performance, motivation, and self-concept and an increase in at-risk behavior during the middle grades (Anderman, Maehr, 8c Midgley, 1999). Fortunately, school-related tasks, such as authentic performance tasks, that encourage academic and social skill development and engagement may help to sustain and promote students' developmental advances and bridge developmental gaps that are typical of students during these years.Authentic performance tasks challenge students to apply their knowledge and skills to realistic problems to create products or performances-consistent with AMLE's position that successful middle grades curriculum is challenging, exploratory, integrative, and relevant (National Middle School Association [now Association for Middle Level Education, AMLE], 2010). Typically in authentic performance tasks, students collaborate on each aspect of the project including problem development, management processes, and products, which promote reflection from multiple perspectives and leads to deeper levels of thinking and transfer (Nicaise, Gibney, 8c Crane, 2000). Although many middle grades educators recognize the benefits of using authentic performance tasks to support academic and social learning goals, how to design and implement authentic performance tasks is generally less understood. In this article, we discuss an authentic performance task used in several middle grades classrooms and offer general guidelines for middle school teachers to help them plan for, implement, and assess authentic performance tasks specifically designed to engage young adolescents and increase learning.Benefits of using authentic performance tasks with middle grades studentsImportant changes during early adolescence result in a number of higher-order cognitive advances. Young adolescents are now capable of abstract thought, which enables them to reason logically through real and hypothetical complex, multifaceted problems. Such thinking requires the execution of advanced information-processing strategies (Keating, 2004) and reflection. Reflection requires students to examine their own and each other's thinking processes; it can lead to reorganization of knowledge and deeper levels of understanding (Keating, 2004).Authentic performance tasks call for students to engage in complex, problem-solving processes with multiple peers over an extended period, and such tasks have the potential to support and foster adolescents' cognitive development, in addition to the obvious ways such collaboration works to enhance the natural social development of young adolescents. The complexity of authentic performance tasks reduces the likelihood that one group member will possess all the cognitive capabilities to complete the task independently (Cohen, 1994). Rather, group members learn that their success relies on all members assuming responsibility for sharing their knowledge and problem-solving processes (Cohen, 1991), thereby working to ease some of the isolation that too often characterizes the middle grades. Through debate and discussion, students have opportunities to recognize, clarify, and modify inconsistencies in their own and in each other's knowledge or to fill in gaps in understanding (Cobb, Yackel, 8c Wood, 1992; Webb, Nemer, 8c Ing, 2006). This can potentially result in students' gaining greater knowledge, understanding, and social stability. And as group members share knowledge (explicitly or implicitly) as they collaborate on authentic performance tasks, they create opportunities for advances in cognitive development. …

The Effect of Professional Development on Physical Education Instruction in Middle Schools

Thirty middle school physical education teachers in the southwestern United States participate in a research study of professional development opportunities and deficiencies in a field not driven by high-stakes testingThe importance of professional development and the positive effect it can have on teaching and learning has been accepted for a number of years. The National Middle School Association (now Association for Middle Level Education [AMLE]), in This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (2010) specifically lists ongoing professional development as an essential characteristic of successful schools for young adolescents. Holland (2005) suggested that time engaged in professional development correlates significantly with the instructional practices of teachers, thus impacting school success and teacher satisfaction. But with ongoing budget cuts and the multitude of other challenges currently facing schools (i.e., working with an increasingly diverse population of students and cultures, integrating new technology, and meeting demanding academic standards and goals), observers continue to stress the need for teachers to build up and diversify their experiences and educations. Emphasizing the need for professional development, Mizell (2010) stated, Educators who do not experience effective professional development do not improve their skills, and student learning suffers (p. 6).As recently as ten years ago, however, few middle school teachers received training to work specifically with young adolescents, whether in teacher training or in professional development (Flowers, Mertens, 8c Mulhall, 2002). This development implied that while most knew their content, they were not knowledgeable in the intricacies of working with their young adolescent students. Currently, 46 states require either a license/ certificate or an endorsement to teach in middle grades (AMLE, 2013). While this trend toward specialization should yield some level of familiarity with young adolescents on the part of the license holder, it by no means guarantees an understanding or commitment to best practices when working with this age group-particularly since states change their licensure requirements regularly. Regardless of the area of emphasis or the model of professional development employed, the core purpose of professional development is to improve student achievement and academic growth (Hough, 2011); such goals for professional development rarely address increased understanding and responsiveness to the myriad developmental changes of middle school students.Professional development for physical education teachersIf professional development focuses on pedagogy and instructional strategies designed to improve student achievement and academic growth (i.e., standardized test scores), how are content areas that are not subjected to high-stakes testing affected? More specifically, what sort of professional development is available to and used by middle grades physical education teachers?Research findings have demonstrated that physical education is considered less valuable than other content areas; furthermore, many physical educators feel isolated, with limited or no access to resources, and they often find themselves struggling to win consideration as legitimate professionals (Lux, 2010). These feelings and lack of support can often lead physical education teachers to believe they are simply doing some kind of organized childcare, thereby merely giving other teachers a break from the students, rather than engaging students in the kind of exploratory, social, kinesthetic education so essential for young adolescents.Not only is professional development through standard methods a key to professional growth, but membership in a professional organization offers imperative benefits. Kauchakand Eggen (2008), in their examination of career-long professional development, recommended joining a professional organization as one of the first steps in a new teacher's professional growth. …

Using SOURCES to Allow Digital Natives to Explore the Lewis and Clark Expedition

The authors discuss use of the SOURCES framework to promote authentic learning experiences in a social studies classroom.Far too frequently, many students find history to be boring, rate it as their least favorite subject, or perceive it as irrelevant (Allen, 1994; Black & Blake, 2001; Jensen, 2001; Zhao 8c Hoge, 2005). One way to help young adolescents find relevance and meaning in the study of history is to focus on historical people. Often, when American history classes highlight people who created history, the content is centered on the accomplishments and lives of political leaders, like the founding fathers and various myths surrounding them (George Washington's apple tree), or events that changed the nation (the drafting of the Declaration of Independence). To make history more germane for our middle grades students, the inclusion of primary sources in the teaching of historical content allows them to begin to understand that real people, not mythological characters, create history.In a People's History of the United States, Zinn (1980) illustrated the importance of the history of the common people, not just the rich, white, elite politicians. After all, most of our students identify personally with common people from the historical periods we study rather than the landed gentry or political leaders. Examining how these events affected the lives of people similar to themselves has the potential to help students understand that the history lessons we implement are pertinent to their lives. School textbooks are good examples of how the study of history has lost the personal aspect that is essential in students' comprehension of historical people and events. Often, the published story in a textbook is overly indulgent to the heroic nature of the agents involved. Fortunately, many of the people we should study and want to study have left records of their existence that, in some ways, bring them back to life. As Mintz (2003) noted:Letters, diaries, and other original documents allow us to hear the living voices of the past. By encouraging students to see history through opposing viewpoints, ... primary sources can encourage a more sophisticated understanding of the forces that have shaped our society, (p. 41)This article focuses on two individuals, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, to show how, through the investigation of primary sources, middle grades students might develop a better understanding of the past and how ordinary people impact the course of history.Historical content and primary sources in the middle gradesThe National Middle School Association (NMSA) (2010) developed major goals of middle grades learners including: becoming actively aware of the larger world; asking significant and relevant questions; being able to think rationally and critically; being able to independently gather, assess, and interpret information from a variety of sources; and to use digital tools to explore, communicate, and collaborate. Similarly, The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS, 1991) stated that middle grades students need opportunities to learn using concrete objects or situations from which students derive data for further thought or action. It is perhaps the single most effective vehicle for helping young adolescents make meaning out of their world. All of us learn by doing (para. 45). Furthermore, Levstik and Barton (2005) identified several themes educators should attempt to explore in their teaching of historical topics: to think about who we are, to picture possible futures, to consider significant questions or themes, to examine social, political, and economic factors, and to study controversy. When teachers incorporate the use of primary sources in the learning of historical content, especially the digitized variety, students are given the opportunity to meet these goals in productive and interactive ways.Students who analyze primary sources have more frequent opportunities to use higher-order thinking skills than their counterparts who do not (Drake & Brown, 2003; Gerwin & Zevin, 2003; Wineburg, 2003). …

Supporting Young Adolescents’ Middle-to-High-School Transition by Creating a Ninth Grade Community of Care: Implications for Middle Grades Educators

Authors discuss the importance of middle-to-high school transitions and highlight the importance of collaboration between middle and high school teachers as essential for healthy adolescent development beyond the middle grades.Difficulties associated with the middle-to-high-school transitionThe middle-to-high-school transition and the first year of high school are critical periods in students' lives. According to the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB), passage of students from the middle grades to high school is the most difficult transition point in education (2002, p. 24). Although there are many different types of grade configurations, most students make the transition into high school between eighth and ninth grade. Regardless of grade configuration, many incoming high school students are deciding whether to stay or leave school during the first weeks of the school year (Hertzog & Morgan, 1999). Ninth grade failure rates are as high as 40% in many lower-performing, high-poverty urban schools throughout the United States (Balfanz & Letgers, 2004). Nationwide, 30% of all freshmen do not graduate high school with a diploma (EPE Research Center, 2006), and 6% of all dropouts leave school by the beginning of their 10th grade year (Mizelle, 1999). One possible reason this period of schooling is so difficult is a potential developmental mismatch between students' needs and their new, often larger, and traditionally organized high school environment (Eccles, 2004; Eccles & Midgley, 1989; Eccles et al., 1993; National Association of Secondary School Principals, 2006). It is vitally important that high schools implement structures and programs that ease the transition and allow school personnel to get to know incoming students; meet their developmental needs, including their social and academic needs (Eccles et al., 1993); and encourage them to become valued, integrated members of a caring community at school (Battistich, Solomon, Watson, & Schaps, 1997; Schussler & Collins, 2006). A community of care can be defined as a school culture in which students and teachers care about and support each other, individuals' needs are satisfied within a group setting, and members feel a sense of belonging and identification with the group (Ellerbrock & Kiefer, 2010).National Middle School Association's This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (2010) highlights 16 characteristics of successful schools for young adolescents, including educators that understand the uniqueness of young adolescents, schools that organize into structures that help to promote meaningful relationships, and school environments that are established to promote emotional well-being. In recent years, high schools around the nation have recognized the importance of supporting their younger adolescent students' needs during the middle-to-high-school transition. High schools have begun implementing developmentally responsive school structures and programs (e.g., small learning communities) for ninthgrade students to help foster a personalized environment that meets the unique needs of adolescents, promotes a sense of community and care, and bolsters academic success. Middle grades educators can help students with this transition by gaining insight into how high schools are identifying the needs of young adolescents and by considering ways they can help meet those needs in collaboration with their high school colleagues (Hertzog & Morgan, 1999).Middle grades educators can teach foundational skills and ensure a sense of continuity to help young adolescents successfully navigate the middle-to-highschool transition. The purpose of this article is to share with middle level educators how one high school attempted to meet the needs of young adolescents by offering a transition program as part of a ninth grade small learning community. This article also highlights ways middle grades educators can help support students during this important period of transition. …

“The Second We Stop Growing We Are Dead”: Examining a Middle Grades Social Studies Professional Dyad

Researchers investigate how two social studies teachers engage in collaborative, reflective practices to develop a student-centered curriculum.Although many middle grades teachers continue to work in isolation with little opportunity to learn from colleagues (Lieberman & Pointer Mace, 2008), teacher collaboration benefits students and teachers (Erb, 2001; Kain, 2001). Both the Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE), formerly National Middle School Association (NMSA, 2010), and the New York State Education Department (2003) assert that an essential characteristic of effective middle schools is teacher collaboration. Teacher collaboration is an important part of their growth as professionals (Coburn, 2001; DuFour, 2004b; Grossman, Wineburg, & Woolworth, 2001; Little, 2002) and has been found to be a key element in highly successful schools (McEwin & Greene, 2010). Additionally, AMLE contends that encouraging collaborative community structures promotes the healthy development of students, teachers, staffmembers, and school leaders.Pathways to such healthy development abound in both research and practice. This article puts its focus on teacher collaboration in the form of a smallscale, qualitative study that provides a snapshot of the professional relationship of how two teachers of the same subject, same grade level, were able to create and sustain a professional dyad. Our research findings serve as a guide for future research about middle grades social studies teacher collaboration through professional dyads.Middle grades teacher collaborationWhile multiple forms of productive teacher partnerships exist (see Figure 1), most middle grades teacher collaborations have consisted of interdisciplinary teams (Erb & Doda, 1998; Rottier, 2001). Ideally, interdisciplinary teams share the same schedule and area of the school building, and they communicate regularly with students' families (see Figure 1). Existing research of social studies middle grades teacher collaborations have been of those with school librarians (Meyer, 2010), special education teachers (Mastropieri et al., 2005), or English teachers (Applebee, Adler, & Flihan, 2007).A growing body of evidence supports the positive impact of interdisciplinary teaming in middle level education (Dickinson & Erb, 1997; Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall, 1999, Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall, 2000). Specifically, Felner and associates (1997) found higher levels of student achievement and student self-esteem in middle schools that used interdisciplinary teaming. Student achievement scores, especially among students receiving free or reduced-price lunch, improved significantly in schools with interdisciplinary teams (Mertens, Flowers, & Mulhall 1998). Applebee, Adler, and Flihan (2007) discovered students in schools with interdisciplinary teams possessed a strong sense of purpose and displayed enthusiasm about learning. For teachers, interdisciplinary teams provide a collaborative and supportive work environment (Applebee, Adler, & Flihan, 2007; Mertens & Flowers, 2004).Interdisciplinary teaming also poses challenges for teachers. Teachers need enough common planning and effective curricular resources to flourish. They also have to possess the dispositions necessary to collaborate closely with colleagues from different disciplines (Renyi, 2000). In their study of 30 teachers of interdisciplinary curricula in New York and California, Applebee, Adler, and Flihan (2007) found that interdisciplinary study was neither a problem nor a panacea (p. 1036) to increasing student achievement. The teachers in their study experienced a number of benefits as well as challenges when working in interdisciplinary teams. The authors asserted that teaming is complex and requires a deep commitment from teachers as well as a mix of personalities that are willing to work together during an extended period of time (Applebee, Adler, & Flihan, 2007, p. …

Students as Action Research Partners: A New Zealand Example

Authors examine how one teacher in New Zealand engaged in collaborative action research with her students.Student voice has long been emphasized as a key component of developmentally responsive middle level education (Beane, 1993; Brodhagen, 2001; National Middle School Association, 2003; Powell & Faircloth, 1997; Toepfer, 1997). For decades, researchers and educators alike have urged consideration of students' perspectives in the design of curriculum improve learning opportunities (Bishop & Pflaum, 2005). Similarly, students' self-assessment of their learning often yields powerful insights into their emerging knowledge and skills (Heritage, 2009). When teachers truly listen young adolescents, they not only learn important lessons, they also create opportunities for students improve their sense of personal efficacy (Stevenson, 2001).Fine examples of such classrooms certainly exist (e.g., Kuntz, 2005; Brinegar & Bishop, 2011); however, they remain the exception. Increasing emphasis on school accountability in the United States often works in opposition more student-centered pedagogies. In contrast actively soliciting students' input, many states and districts have mandated a top-down curriculum that encourages the use of textbooks that purport prepare students for tests tied increasingly school funding, teachers' salaries, and principals' jobs.The purpose of this article is present a New Zealand example of a middle years teacher who, in divergence from this current U.S. (and increasingly New Zealand) focus on school accountability, invited her students into the conversation about teaching and learning improve her and cocreate responsive pedagogy. Betty (a pseudonym) was in her sixth year of teaching and saw the research as an opportunity learn from her students more about effective teaching for young adolescents. She intended reflect on this knowledge and integrate insights into her teaching practice.The article begins by outlining what is meant by collaborative action research in the context of this study and how participating teachers and students used this methodology explore and cocreate responsive pedagogy. In the interest of space, only one teacher's experience is described as an example of what can happen when students and teachers work together consider the complex endeavor known as public education. Betty's class used collaborative action research processes revitalize reflecting on learning in their classroom. The article describes the process they went through and the findings of this classroom's action research cycle. We conclude by exploring the possibilities and implications of collaborative action research for enacting student voice in classrooms and for teacher development and effectiveness.Action researchAction research, a cyclical process of problem solving through data collection, analysis, action, and evaluation, is not uncommon in educational research and is often conducted in school settings (Caskey, 2005). Action research is preferred as a key practitioner research and professional development approach because it involves teachers working to understand and improve their own practice (Collins, 2004, p. 348). Examples that engage students in that research, however, continue be all too rare, although involving students as researchers is a key strand of student voice research (Atweh & Bland, 2004; Yonezawa & Jones, 2009). Inviting students as full partners in the research cycle has the potential transform their tacit knowledge of good teaching and of themselves as learners into valuable, explicit knowledge for teachers. Through this practice, both student and teacher are positioned as learners in relationship with each other (Collins, 2004). In such classrooms, students and teacher together make ongoing decisions about focus, process, and strategy and draw on one another's experience and expertise. …