National Geoscience Research Articles

Improving data accessibility and application for underground climate re-search at the British Geological Survey

Improving data accessibility and application for underground climate re-search at the British Geological Survey

The Geological Survey of Namibia: From colonial office to national geoscience institution

The Geological Survey of Namibia: From colonial office to national geoscience institution

Cancer-associated fibroblasts drive early pancreatic cancer cell invasion via the SOX4/MMP11 signalling axis

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by abundant cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), early perineural invasion (PNI) and microvascular invasion (MVI). However, the differentiation trajectories and underlying molecular mechanisms of CAFs in PDAC early invasion have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we integrated and reanalysed single-cell data from the National Geoscience Data Centre (NGDC) database and confirmed that myofibroblast-like CAFs (myCAFs) mediated epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (EMT) and enhanced the invasion abilities of PDAC cells by secreting regulators of angiogenesis and metastasis. Furthermore, we constructed a differentiation trajectory of CAFs and revealed that reprogramming from iCAFs to myCAFs was associated with poor prognosis. Mechanistically, SOX4 was aberrantly activated in myCAFs, which promoted the secretion of MMP11 and eventually induced early cancer cell invasion. Together, our results provide a comprehensive transcriptomic overview of PDAC patients with early invasion and reveal the intercellular crosstalk between myCAFs and cancer cells, which suggests potential targets for early invasion PDAC therapy.

Drilling into mines for heat: geological synthesis of the UK Geoenergy Observatory in Glasgow and implications for mine water heat resources

Thermal energy from groundwater in abandoned, flooded, coal mines has the potential to make a significant contribution to decarbonization of heat and net-zero carbon emissions. In Glasgow, UK, a subsurface observatory has been constructed for mine water heat and heat storage research. We synthesize geological and mine water resource findings from a 4 year period of borehole planning, drilling, logging and testing. The heterogeneous bedrock is typical of the Scottish Coal Measures Group, whereas superficial deposits are more sand- and gravel-dominated than predicted. Mine water boreholes encountered workings in the Glasgow Upper, Glasgow Ell and Glasgow Main coal seams, proving water-filled voids, mine waste, fractured rock mass and intact coal pillars, with high yields on initial hydrogeological testing. Although the depth and extent of mine workings delineated on mine abandonment plans proved accurate, metre-scale variability was expected and proved in the boreholes. A mine water reservoir classification established from the observatory boreholes highlights the resource potential in areas of total extraction, stowage, and stoop and room workings. Because their spatial extent is more extensive across the UK than shafts or roadways, increasing the mine water energy evidence base and reducing exploration risk in these types of legacy workings is important. Supplementary material: Borehole reports and other datasets are available at https://ukgeos.ac.uk/data-downloads (mixture of over 20 DOI datasets and reports or data packs published openly on https://nora.nerc.ac.uk ; all material is deposited in the National Geoscience Data Centre).

A comparison of self-reported teaching practices focused on student skills in introductory geoscience courses at two-year and four-year institutions: Results from the National Geoscience Faculty Survey

Community colleges are a major entry point for many students to post-secondary education, particularly for minority, first-generation, low-income, and older students. A range of factors including transfer-readiness, curricular alignment, financial barriers, and transfer guidance, influence successful transfer between two-year colleges (2YCs) and four-year colleges and universities (4YCs). One critical factor related to transfer-readiness may be the degree to which students have similar experiences in the development of key skills in their introductory courses. This study uses the 2016 National Geoscience Faculty Survey to compare self-reported teaching practices used by instructors in introductory geoscience courses that support the development of students’ quantitative, data analysis, problem-based, communication, and metacognitive skills in 2YCs and 4YCs. Based on responses of 1,027 instructors (238 in 2YCs and 789 in 4YCs), a majority of the teaching practices in skills development in 2YCs are similar to those in 4YCs. Of the 24 teaching practices analyzed, seven displayed statistically significant differences after accounting for class size and active class time, however, the logistic models do not predict major differences between 2YCs and 4YCs. The findings of this study may serve to initiate discussions and collaborations between 2YCs and 4YCs, which could strengthen the transfer process and reduce challenges for transfer students.

Comparing desired workforce skills and reported teaching practices to model students’ experiences in undergraduate geoscience programs

A goal of undergraduate geoscience programs is to prepare students for the geoscience workforce. In order to understand the extent to which programs succeed at this goal, we identified desired workforce skills, compiled undergraduate geoscience program requirements, and mapped workforce skills onto faculty responses to the 2016 National Geoscience Faculty Survey categorized by respondent-provided course names for majors-level courses (n = 1037). We used a Bayesian statistical model to determine the posterior probability of students practicing desired workforce skills in undergraduate geoscience programs, using program profiles as the model prior, conditioned by the likelihood of a student practicing workforce skills in each course category based upon survey responses. Probabilistic Monte Carlo simulations of students in each example program were used to calculate the likely number of courses in which a student practiced each skill. Activities to help students develop skills related to geologic reasoning, working as part of a team, quantitative skills (algebra), applying skills in new scenarios, evaluation of scientific literature, temporal thinking, spatial thinking, written communication, and managing uncertainty are frequently encountered by students; on average, students encounter these activities at least seven times during an undergraduate program. In contrast, students encounter activities to help them develop an understanding of societal relevance and systems thinking, on average, fewer than three times during an undergraduate program. Our results provide a snapshot, via instructors’ reporting, of the state of workforce skill development across undergraduate degree programs, and both the approach and data set can be built upon for future studies.

Design and impact of the national workshop for early career geoscience faculty

The National Association of Geoscience Teachers’ Workshop for Early Career Geoscience Faculty: Teaching, Research, and Managing One’s Career has been offered annually since 1999. The five-day workshop with accompanying web resources employs a “whole faculty” approach to support geoscience faculty members during their transition into academic careers. More than 1,000 faculty members (53% female, 47% male) have attended the national workshop; 52% from doctoral-granting institutions, 15% master’s, 28% bachelor’s, and 5% associates. Evidence-based instructional practices are shared and modeled during workshop sessions. Situated learning theory grounds the workshop design and promotes the development of a community of practice. Examination of the 2016 National Geoscience Faculty Survey data using univariate analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) showed that workshop alumni report spending more class time on student activities, questions, and discussion than faculty members who did not participate in the workshop, particularly on small group discussions or think-pair-share and in-class exercises (for introductory courses p < .05; for majors courses p < .001). Workshop alumni also were more likely than faculty who did not participate to report feeling part of a geoscience community that shares their goals, philosophy, and values for geoscience education (p < .01), more likely to report that interactions with this community help them to become better educators (p < .001), and more likely to attend talks on teaching methods or science education (p < .001). Although causality cannot be established without random assignment, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that this discipline-based workshop with its holistic approach is effective at promoting evidence-based teaching strategies and a community of practice.

Faculty self-reported use of quantitative and data analysis skills in undergraduate geoscience courses

Quantitative literacy is a foundational component of success in STEM disciplines and in life. Quantitative concepts and data-rich activities in undergraduate geoscience courses can strengthen geoscience majors’ understanding of geologic phenomena and prepare them for future careers and graduate school, and provide real-world context to apply quantitative thinking for non-STEM students. We use self-reported teaching practices from the 2016 National Geoscience Faculty Survey to document the extent to which undergraduate geoscience instructors emphasize quantitative skills (algebra, statistics, and calculus) and data analysis skills in introductory (n = 1096) and majors (n = 1066) courses. Respondents who spent more than 20% of class time on student activities, questions, and discussions, taught small classes, or engaged more with the geoscience community through research or improving teaching incorporated statistical analyses and data analyses more frequently in their courses. Respondents from baccalaureate institutions reported use of a wider variety of data analysis skills in all courses compared with respondents from other types of institutions. Additionally, respondents who reported using more data analysis skills in their courses also used a broader array of strategies to prepare students for the geoscience workforce. These correlations suggest that targeted professional development could increase instructors’ use of quantitative and data analysis skills to meet the needs of their students in context.

The relationship between active learning, course innovation, and teaching Earth systems thinking: A structural equation modeling approach

AbstractEarth systems thinking (EST), or thinking of the Earth as a complex system made up of interworking subsystems, has been shown to reflect the highest level of knowing and understanding in the geosciences. Previous work has found four frameworks of EST that repeatedly appear in the geoscience education literature. This study aims to quantitatively build on this work by employing structural equation modeling to understand the current state of EST teaching as shown by the 2016 iteration of the National Geoscience Faculty Survey (United States; n = 2615). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on survey items to understand and develop three models, one for EST teaching practices, one for course changes, and one for active-learning teaching practices. Analyses revealed that reported EST teaching practices relate back to the four EST frameworks proposed in the literature. The three models explored in this study were used to build a full structural model, where it was hypothesized that active-learning teaching practices would predict EST course changes and EST teaching. However, the model revealed that EST course changes mediate, or bring about, the relationship between active-learning teaching practices and EST teaching. In other words, the relationship between active-learning and EST teaching practices is not direct. This implies the need for continued efforts to provide professional development opportunities in both active-learning teaching practices and EST, as active-learning practices are not sufficient to implicitly teach EST skills. Results also revealed that the teaching approaches that emphasize modeling and complexity sciences had the weakest relationship to the broader EST teaching practices, suggesting a need for more professional development opportunities as they relate to systems modeling, quantitative reasoning, and complexity sciences in the context of the Earth sciences.

Motivators and inhibitors to change: Why and how geoscience faculty modify their course content and teaching methods

The call to improve undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education can be answered by undergraduate faculty modifying their course content and teaching methods to generate better student outcomes. The National Geoscience Faculty Survey—administered in 2004, 2009, 2012, and 2016—provides evidence that the vast majority of geoscience faculty recently modified their course content in a variety of ways, and about half recently adjusted their teaching methods toward more student-centered approaches. Respondents from across many different subgroups (e.g., institution type, position, and class type) are equally likely to modify content, perhaps reflecting the importance of current events, societal issues, and recent research findings to undergraduate geoscience education. In contrast, whether a respondent modified his or her teaching methods in the last two years varies strongly across subgroups. Two predictors of whether respondents modified their teaching methods is whether they also modified content, with respondents who changed their course content almost twice as likely to have also changed their teaching methods and how frequently they speak to colleagues about teaching, with more frequent discussion correlated with a higher percentage of faculty changing teaching methods. A major inhibitor to making course modifications is time constraints, and the promotion and tenure process may play a role in inhibiting change. The results indicate that the geoscience community approach of embedding discussions of teaching methods within workshops, webinars, and modules that primarily focus on teaching specific content may be an effective means of improving STEM education more broadly.

Probing the National Geoscience Faculty Survey for reported use of practices that support inclusive learning environments in undergraduate courses

What is the extent to which college and university geoscience faculty report using education practices that contribute to more inclusive learning environments and engage a diverse population of students? In the 2016 National Geoscience Faculty Survey, faculty answered questions about their practices in a specific introductory or major course they had taught in the previous two years, and about how they share and learn about the content and methods used in their teaching. Based on factor analysis, 22 of the survey questions divided into four categories associated with inclusive teaching practices: geoscientist representations, curricular choices, learning strategies, and career pathways. The self-reported use of practices across these four categories varies greatly, with some used by as many as 71% of faculty respondents whereas others by only 8%. These data provide new information on the current state of teaching practices in the geosciences with regard to inclusive practices, and establish a baseline to which responses from future surveys may be compared. Univariate general modeling combined with ANOVA tests on the responses to the questions shows that education practices differ based on variables such as teaching style, communication with colleagues, years of teaching experience, faculty type, institution type, class size, and course type (introductory or major). These differences suggest opportunities for focused geoscience faculty development around education practices that support the success of a diverse population of undergraduate students and the enhancement of inclusive learning environments in the geosciences.

A National Geoscience Data Platform and its Application in Paleobiodiversity Studies: Experiences from Estonia

Studying deep time biodiversity and environments is largely based on collections of fossils and sedimentary rocks, and the information acquired thereof. The sedimentary bedrocks of Estonia and neighbouring areas constitute a well-preserved archive of Earth history from the late Precambrian to the Devonian period. This interval of geological time hosts several key events in the diversification of life, notably the Cambrian explosion, the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event and the Hirnantian mass extinction. Documenting and understanding these events has benefited from the geological and paleontological collections from the Baltic region, a large part of which are deposited in Estonia. Since 2004 Estonia has had a 'national geological collection' that virtually joins the archives of three major collection-holding institutions: Tallinn University of Technology, University of Tartu and the Estonian Museum of Natural History (Hints et al. 2008). A key to the functioning of this national consortium is the common database system 'SARV', which started as a simple collection management tool, but has grown into a geoscience data platform linking various types of geoscientific information and supporting also the needs of researchers. Technically the system is based on a relational data model and central database server, a REST API and a number of web-based user interfaces from data management tools to public portals and more specialized applications. Individual components of the system are now built on open source software including MySQL, Apache Solr, Django REST framework, and Angular and Vue JavaScript frameworks. The data model and all recently developed software are available in a Github repository (https://github.com/geocollections). Data on individual fossil specimens, digital images, localities, regional stratigraphic units, rock samples, datasets, published references, field notebooks etc. are publicly accessible in the Estonian geoscience collections portal (https://geocollections.info). A separate gateway provides access to the information on fossil taxa and their distribution in the Baltic region (https://fossiilid.info). Another example of using the same underlying data platform specifically for paleobiodiversity research is the Baltic chitinozoan database CHITDB (http://chitinozoa.net; Hints et al. 2018). Chitinozoans are an enigmatic group of Paleozoic microfossils, very useful in biostratigraphy. Some of the largest collections of these fossils worldwide derive from the Baltica paleocontinent and are deposited in Estonia. The chitinozoan portal was developed for managing and publishing the occurrence-level data on chitinozoans, and for quantitatively analysing their diversification history and biotic crises through the Ordovician and Silurian periods. The main benefit of using such an integrated data system is that a user may easily turn back to individual samples and specimen images (for instance, to verify identifications), and combine the paleontological data with information about past environments and climate that might derive from publications, first-hand geochemical data or even from descriptions in field notebooks. Global tools, such as the Paleobiology database, cannot provide such functionality for the time being. The next steps in enhancing the national geoscience data platform in Estonia are related to the development of new data collection and publication modules, building a complete digital library of geoscience publications related to Estonia and widening the user base of the system. Participation in the national research infrastructure roadmap project NATARC as well as the Pan-European DiSSCo will support achieving this and safeguarding the sustainability of geoscience data and corresponding e-services in Estonia.

National Geoscience Faculty Survey 2016: Prevalence of systems thinking and scientific modeling learning opportunities

Scientific modeling and systems thinking (SMST) is central to the geosciences, yet few studies have documented how and to what extent undergraduate geoscience courses emphasize SMST, as well as factors that might help explain or predict these trends. Here, we present research based on data (n = 2056) from the most recent (2016) administration of the National Geoscience Faculty Survey, administered to a national sample of postsecondary geoscience instructors in the United States. We investigated instructor- and course-related variables as they relate to a set of 9 survey items that serve as a composite measure for SMST. Significant variation was observed in reported frequencies of individual SMST practices in undergraduate geoscience courses. The highest levels of reported SMST were associated with faculty from atmospheric and environmental sciences, those who emphasized research-based, student-centered pedagogical practices, those who recently made changes to both course content and teaching methods, and those who reported high levels of engagement in instructional improvement activities (workshops, presentations, seminars). Reported SMST practices were similar for faculty identifying as geoscientists and geoscience education researchers, and both were significantly higher than for teaching-focused faculty who do not conduct research. A linear regression model including variables found to be significant in the analyses was able to predict 17% of the overall variance in reported SMST practices. These findings illustrate the importance of instructors’ disciplinary orientation and active engagement in instructional innovation as related to SMST, and provide important points of impact for enhancing SMST in undergraduate geoscience courses through course design and faculty development. However, the relatively modest predictive power of the regression model indicates there are many other factors influencing SMST that warrant future research.

Arsenic in Groundwater in South West Ireland: Occurrence, Controls, and Hydrochemistry

Funding based on research grant-aided by the Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources under the National Geoscience Programme 2007-2013. The views expressed in this study are the author's own and do not necessarily reflect the views and opinions of the Minister for Communications, Energy and Natural Resources. The authors acknowledge support of the HEA under PRTLI4 for licensing OSI Digital Imagery through the Ryan Institute. This work includes Ordnance Survey Ireland data reproduced under OSi License number NUIG220212. Unauthorized reproduction infringes Ordnance Survey Ireland and Government of Ireland copyright. © Ordnance Survey Ireland, 2012. The authors would like to thank the members of local government for data collection (particularly David Lenihan) and David Ball and Taly Hunter Williams for providing invaluable discussions on the manuscript. The authors would also like to thank David Ball for preparation of Figure 2 for this paper.

National Geoscience Conference 2014 : Climate and Sea Level Change Through Geologic Time ( 13 - 14 June 2014 , Kuala Terengganu , Malaysia )

The 27th National Geoscience Conference held in Kuala Terengganu on 13-14 June, and co-organised by Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMT) and the Malaysian Minerals & Geoscience Department, was attended by 200 participants. The potential effects of ongoing climatic and sea level changes are of global concern, especially for countries with coastal populations. The most recent geologic period, the Quaternary (0 to 2.6 million years ago), is characterised by high frequency climate and sea level changes. The conference focussed on understanding these changes to facilitate prediction of future coastal trends. In addition to the conference theme there were sessions on geohazards, engineering geology, geochemistry, hydrogeology and economic geology. The conference was opened by Professor Datuk Ibrahim Komoo, UMT Vice Chancellor, who emphasised that geoscientists have a leading role in contributing towards understanding past environmental changes. The well-known geological truism that “The Present is the Key to the Past”, needs to be joined with one that “The Past is the Key to the Future”. Geologists understand past climatic changes well and so are ideally positioned to assist with future predictions.

GEOMAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS IN LATVIA

The knowledge of the Earth's magnetic field elements and their dynamic fluctuations over the area concerned are important and can be used for many practical purposes in various fields, including Geodesy and Cartography. Earth's magnetic field tends to vary over time. Unlike the field of a bar magnet, Earth's field changes over time because it is really generated by the motion of molten iron alloys in the Earth's outer core. Long-term magnetic field changes are caused mainly by processes in the Earth's interior, particularly the iron-rich core. Short-term changes of the magnetic field are mainly caused by the currents in the ionosphere and magnetosphere generated by Solar activity. The Latvian Geospatial Information Agency (LGIA) has monumented repeat stations and started periodical Earth's magnetic field declination and inclination measurements in Latvia in 2004. The Network of 6 repeat stations is regularly distributed over the territory of Latvia. The repeat stations of Latvia are: Aglona; Ozolaine; Mikeltornis; Velena; Nigrande; Vilkene. In every repeat station the D, I and F values were determined. Declination on territory of Latvia changes from 4° till 8° in the West – East direction. Magnetometer LEMI – 203 together with theodolite 3T2KP and proton magnetometer PMP 5 were used for measurements. Coordinates of the stations were determined by double frequency (L1/L2) GPS receivers. Determined coordinates were used to obtain geographical azimuth. For reduction the data from Toravere (Estonia) observatory were used, where a variometer from the Nurmijarvi Geophysical Observatory is located. Repeat station points are fixed with benchmarks. Benchmarks are non-magnetic. All the data were sent to the British Geological Survey National Geoscience Data Centre.

Initiation, development, and benefits of Lithoprobe — shaping the direction of Earth science research in Canada and beyondThis article is one of a series of papers published in this Special Issue on the theme Lithoprobe — parameters, processes, and the evolution of a continent.Lithoprobe Contribution 1480.

Lithoprobe is Canada’s national, collaborative, multidisciplinary, Earth science research project established to develop a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of northern North America. It is regarded internationally as one of the most successful national geoscience projects ever undertaken. Part of Lithoprobe’s success derives from its history and organizational structure. A one-year Phase I program (1984–1985) was highly successful. Phases II to V carried the project forward until 2005, when funding terminated. Lithoprobe was organized as a decentralized research network of multidisciplinary scientific studies and collaborating scientists. About 1500 scientific publications were generated. Lithoprobe’s legacy also includes economic and social benefits. New and improved understanding of Earth history provides petroleum and mining companies with an enhanced knowledge base. Lithoprobe demonstrated the applicability of high-resolution seismic reflection studies to mineral exploration. Development of a portable seismic refraction recorder and a long-period magnetotelluric system led to technology transfer to Canadian companies. Very high-resolution seismic reflection studies, applied first by Lithoprobe, are proving effective for exploration for uranium deposits in Saskatchewan. In the cratonic areas of Canada, Lithoprobe seismic and magnetotelluric studies have provided significant new information relevant to exploration for diamonds. On the west coast of Canada, Lithoprobe studies provided data and a framework for better understanding the mega-thrust earthquake hazard in the region. Lithoprobe established a highly effective public outreach strategy that involved the print and electronic media as well as material for educational purposes. Unequivocally, Lithoprobe has enhanced the already strong reputation of the Earth sciences in Canada.

Basement constraints on offshore basin architecture as determined by new aeromagnetic data acquired over Bass Strait and western margin of Tasmania

The geology and petroleum potential of the western Tasmanian offshore basins is poorly understood. As part of a strategy to improve the understanding of these basins, aeromagnetic data was acquired by Geoscience Australia and Mineral Resources Tasmania under a National Geoscience Agreement and partly funded by the Commonwealth Government?s Offshore Energy Security Program. The survey acquired 141,234 line km of high quality data with a line spacing of 800 m across the Bass, southern Otway and Sorell basins and Torquay Sub-basin (Figure 1). The aim of this survey was to acquire new aeromagnetic data to help delineate the structural architecture of the basins and underlying basement and the distribution of igneous rocks. The data fill a gap in the existing aeromagnetic coverage between Tasmania and mainland Australia and provide fresh insights into basement structure and its control on basin architecture and sedimentation patterns during the breakup of Gondwana and separation of Australia from Antarctica.

Developing a geoscience knowledge framework for a national geological survey organisation

Geological survey organisations (GSOs) are established by most nations to provide a geoscience knowledge base for effective decision-making on mitigating the impacts of natural hazards and global change, and on sustainable management of natural resources. The value of the knowledge base as a national asset is continually enhanced by the exchange of knowledge between GSOs as data and information providers and the stakeholder community as knowledge ‘users and exploiters’. Geological maps and associated narrative texts typically form the core of national geoscience knowledge bases, but have some inherent limitations as methods of capturing and articulating knowledge. Much knowledge about the three-dimensional (3D) spatial interpretation and its derivation and uncertainty, and the wider contextual value of the knowledge, remains intangible in the minds of the mapping geologist in implicit and tacit form. To realise the value of these knowledge assets, the British Geological Survey (BGS) has established a workflow-based cyber-infrastructure to enhance its knowledge management and exchange capability. Future geoscience surveys in the BGS will contribute to a national, 3D digital knowledge base on UK geology, with the associated implicit and tacit information captured as metadata, qualitative assessments of uncertainty, and documented workflows and best practice. Knowledge-based decision-making at all levels of society requires both the accessibility and reliability of knowledge to be enhanced in the grid-based world. Establishment of collaborative cyber-infrastructures and ontologies for geoscience knowledge management and exchange will ensure that GSOs, as knowledge-based organisations, can make their contribution to this wider goal.

Use of potential field data and modelling to complement detailed geological mapping in the goulburn–braidwood area, New South Wales

The Goulburn and Braidwood airborne geophysical surveys that cover part of the Southern Highlands of New South Wales have been flown as part of the National Geoscience Mapping Accord and the NSW Government’s $30 million Exploration NSW initiative. The new airborne magnetic and radiometric survey data show that many of the geological boundaries on Department maps can now be improved in areas of sparse outcrop. Interpretation of the new data will greatly assist the definition of rock types and geological structures that may be associated with gold, silver, lead, zinc and copper mineralisation and for construction materials such as sand and gravel.The airborne magnetic dataset has assisted in delineation of a number of major structural domains characterised by marked variations in strain and structural style. The survey areas are critically sited at the convergence of geological terranes already studied further to the north. These terranes are bounded by major fault structures � some of which appear to converge and then diverge.Recent geological mapping, assisted by the interpretation of all the geophysical data, allows recognition of the complex volcanic and clastic stratigraphy of the mid-Late Silurian sequences. This has led to the recognition that the Hill End Trough and Ngunawal Basin (Captains Flat area) are most likely to both be part of a continuous marine basin, and expands the area prospective for VHMS Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag-Ba-Au deposits along the Frogmore Fault Zone in the west, and along the Yarralaw Fault Zone in the east.Potential field modelling has contributed to a more-confident interpretation of the third dimension, and has provided control in the preparation of cross-sections.