National Expenditure Research Articles

The impact of controlling corruption on government effectiveness in GCC countries

This research examines how controlling corruption impacts government effectiveness in GCC countries while also considering independent variables like political stability, industry, gross national expenditure, regulatory quality, and rule of law. The study uses panel data from 2003 to 2022 for six emerging GCC countries: Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman. Data for this analysis was sourced from the World Bank database, 2023. The study applied the ordinary least squares (OLS) method and accounted for the effects of COVID-19 and the 2008 recession on government effectiveness. Diagnostic tests for autocorrelation, multicollinearity, heteroscedasticity, and normality were conducted to ensure the reliability of the regression results, revealing no issues with multicollinearity or normality. The findings show that control of corruption and other variables significantly affect government effectiveness in GCC countries, with an adjusted R² of 87.4%. The model proposed could be recommended as a tool for assessing government effectiveness in any country.

Effects of Income on Family Care Organization in Mexico: An Analysis Based on Data from the Encuesta Nacional de Ingreso y Gasto de los Hogares (ENIGH) from 2010 to 2020

This article examines the impact of income level on family care organizations in Mexico to elucidate how families apportion care responsibilities according to their economic standing. The study design employed a quantitative approach, utilizing two distinct methodologies to construct two indices: one representing the time devoted to care and the other representing care transferred to the market. Factor analysis converts minutes and hours into a time index and transforms the number of domestic workers and health and hospital expenses into a market index. A regression model estimates the effect of income on these indices, aiming to analyze the relationship between income and spending on health and services and between income and time spent on home care. The results are based on data from the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey (ENIGH) 2010–2020, using a nationally representative sample of 81 thousand dwellings. The data analysis concluded that households with higher incomes spend a more significant proportion of their expenditure on domestic care-paid services and have greater access to professional care. In contrast, lower-income households face significant challenges due to their limited financial resources and the higher demands for unpaid care.

Odontogenic Infections: Management in Ambulatory Care Settings for Nurse Practitioners

Dental insurance and access to care need substantial improvement in the United States, given their current inadequacies that contribute to suboptimal oral and physical health outcomes and escalate national health care expenditures. The disparities in access to dental care exacerbate oral health disparities across socioeconomic lines. With their broad reach and comprehensive approach to health care, nurse practitioners are uniquely positioned to play a pivotal role in enhancing oral health outcomes. They can effectively integrate preventive measures and early intervention strategies for conditions such as odontogenic infections, thereby reducing emergency department visits and improving overall patient health. This clinical feature critically examines evidence-based practices for the presentation, diagnosis, and management of odontogenic infections within primary care settings. Disseminating this knowledge aims to empower nurse practitioners to deliver timely and effective care, ultimately fostering more significant equity and accessibility in dental health services nationwide.

The impact of sodium glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists on insulin utilisation and costs in Australia: a national retrospective observational cross-sectional study

Global insulin requirements for type 2 diabetes were predicted to increase by more than 20% from 2018 to 2030. However, this did not anticipate the rapid increase in use of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists and sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors that has occurred over recent years. The current study aims to examine changes in insulin utilisation and costs in Australia from 2003 to2023. We conducted a large-scale observational study of national insulin utilisation and expenditure in Australia from 2003 to 2023 using the Australian Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme. The proportion of insulin-treated people with type 2 diabetes between 2013 and 2023 was estimated using National Diabetes Services Scheme data. Joinpoint models and interrupted time series analysis were used to examine utilisation trends. Insulin utilisation (units of insulin per person with diabetes) increased by an average of 2.71% per annum (95% CI 1.97, 3.73) from 2003 to 2015, then fell by 2.70% per annum (95% CI-4.55,-1.39) from 2015 to 2023. The proportion of insulin-treated people with type 2 diabetes increased by 1.00% per annum (95% CI 0.81, 1.25) from 2013 to 2020, then fell by 0.66% per annum (95% CI-1.62,-0.04) from 2020 to 2023. A 43% reduction in inflation-adjusted insulin expenditure was observed between 2015 and 2023 due to a combination of reduced utilisation and reduction in the price of insulin glargine. Projected global insulin requirements and costs may be less than previously anticipated if reduced use of insulin in Australia is similarly observed in other countries. No funding was received for this study.

Healthcare Expenditure on Atrial Fibrillation in the United States: The Medical Expenditure Panel Survey 2016-2021.

To provide a contemporary nationally representative assessment of atrial fibrillation (AF) and atrial flutter (AFL) expenditures in the United States. AF prevalence is rising over time and management is evolving. However, there has been no contemporary national assessment of expenditures of AF. Using Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) 2016-2021 data, we identified individuals with AF or AFL using International Classification of Disease (ICD)-10 codes and reported total and categorized expenditures. Using two-part and gamma regression models, respectively, we estimated the incremental expenditures with AF for the entire population and for individuals with common coexisting comorbidities. Among individuals with AF, we identified characteristics associated with higher expenditures. Of a weighted surveyed population of 248,067,064 adults, 3,564,763 (1.4%) had AF. Mean age was 71.9 ± 10.6 years and 45.7% were female. Mean unadjusted annual total healthcare expenditure for individuals with AF was $25,451 ± $1,100 compared with $9,254 ± $82 for individuals without AF. The highest spending categories were inpatient visits ($7,975 ± $733) and prescriptions ($6,505 ± $372). AF expenditures increased over the study period by 11.1%. After adjustment, the incremental annual expenditure attributable to AF was $6,188 per person. Incremental expenditures with AF were highest for those with cancer ($11,967, 95% CI $4,410 - $19,525), while AF did not significantly increase expenditures in HF (-$2,756, 95% CI -$10,048 - $4,535). Modified Charlson Comorbidity Index of 1 or ≥2, uninsured status, cancer, poor income level, ASCVD, COPD, and later survey year were associated with higher expenditures. AF is associated with substantial healthcare expenditures which are increasing over time. With changes in screening and management, expenditures need periodic reassessments. Introduction: AF prevalence is rising, but contemporary national expenditure assessments are lacking.Methods: Two-part and gamma regression models of MEPS 2016-2021 data (all-payer cross-sectional US survey) estimated AF effect on healthcare expenditures.Results: Of 248,067,064 adults, 1.4% had AF, with mean age 72.1 years and 45.7% female. Mean unadjusted annual expenditure was $25,451 ± $1,100 ($9,254 ± $82 without AF). Incremental adjusted annual expenditure attributable to AF was $6,188. Modified CCI of 1 or ≥2, uninsured status, cancer, poor income level, ASCVD, COPD, and later survey year were associated with higher expenditure.Discussion: AF expenditures are substantial and increasing.

IMPACT OF INVESTMENT, REGIONAL AND NATIONAL BUDGET CAPITAL EXPENDITURES ON MALUKU PROVINCE'S ECONOMIC GROWTH (2010-2022) USING MULTIPLE LINEAR REGRESSION

Economic growth in Maluku Province is lower compared to several provinces in the Sulawesi Maluku Papua region. This research aims to analyze the influence of investment (foreign and domestic investment), regional and national budget capital expenditures (APBD capital expenditure and APBN capital expenditure) on economic growth in Maluku Province. This research uses secondary data from Maluku Province sourced from BPS for 2010-2022. The research method uses multiple linear regression with the SPSS application. The research results show that investment negatively and significantly affects economic growth. APBD capital expenditure and APBN capital expenditure have a positive and insignificant impact on economic growth in Maluku Province. This research implies that local governments must increase foreign and domestic investment and use capital expenditure effectively and efficiently to encourage economic development in Maluku.

Cross-country price comparison of institutional long-term care: In search of suitable data

Abstract Background In European ageing societies, the national expenditure on institutional long-term care (LTC) has been growing for decades, currently exceeding 1% of the GDP in many countries. At the same time, however, comparative analyses of (day) prices in the nursing and residential care facilities (NRCFs) are still lacking. The data reported by international databases vary substantially in the services they cover which makes cross-country comparisons very difficult. Methods We combine publicly available data from Eurostat (System of Health Accounts), OECD and national sources on the number of recipients of LTC in NRCFs, the number of beds in NRCFs and the expenditure on LTC in NRCFs in over 20 European countries. Our aim is to compute internationally comparable daily prices of LTC in NRCFs using gross-costing approach. We first validate the data by cross-checking and documenting which health care functions and providers are reported by each country. Second, based on that we identify countries with comparable data and, third, perform a cross-country comparison of the daily spending on LTC in NRCFs. Results The reported data vary substantially with respect to their coverage. For instance, while some countries include NRCFs for all disabled people at all ages, others focus only on the NRCFs for the elderly. The ways the beds and the recipients are counted also show substantial variation. Moreover, we found inconsistencies in the reported numbers not only between but also within countries. Conclusions The considerable cross-country diversity in the LTC provision within the NRCFs poses inevitable challenges to international standardised reporting. Our analysis shows, however, that at least some of the challenges can be overcome by, e.g. improving the consistency of the reported numbers at the country level. Key messages • A consistent definition application markedly improves the comparability of data on LTC in NRCFs. • Given the rising demand for and economic importance of the LTC sector standardised data on NRCF services are greatly needed.

Mapping the Out-of-Pocket Healthcare Costs for Terminal Cancer Patients across Europe

Abstract Background In many countries, including those with universal health insurance, cost-sharing for healthcare is prevalent, resulting in out-of-pocket expenses for cancer patients. However, the proportion of government contribution to national healthcare expenditure varies across countries. This study aims to determine the prevalence and magnitude of out-of-pocket expenditure among cancer decedents in their final year of life and to assess whether decedents’ characteristics or their country’s welfare regime have a greater impact on out-of-pocket expenditure. Methods SHARE data was analyzed for individuals aged 50 and above from seven European countries (including Israel) who passed away from cancer. Interviews were conducted with the decedents’ family members to gather information about out-of-pocket expenditure on behalf of their deceased relatives. Results The study identified 1,950 cancer decedents with an average age of 74.4 (S.D.=9.39), of which 58.0 percent were male. In their last year of life, 58 percent of the decedents incurred out-of-pocket expenditure on healthcare services. The welfare regime is found to be the primary factor influencing the likelihood of out-of-pocket expenditure, while patients’ characteristics have minimal impact. The proportion of out-of-pocket expenditure varies significantly across welfare regimes, with the highest probability observed in the Continental and Social Democratic regimes and the lowest in the Mediterranean and East European regimes. Conclusions A country’s welfare regime plays a crucial role in determining the generosity of its public healthcare spending and its ability to alleviate the financial burden on the households of cancer patients. Increasing public funding for cancer care may reduce patients’ out-of-pocket expenditure in all countries, particularly in those where out-of-pocket expenditure is the highest. Key messages • A country’s welfare regime significantly impacts the likelihood and magnitude of out-of-pocket healthcare expenditure for cancer patients in their last year of life. • Increasing public funding for cancer care may help reduce the financial burden on patients and their families, particularly in countries with high out-of-pocket expenditure.

Increased tobacco taxation associated with decreased consumption and bladder cancer incidence.

The temporal relationship between smoking exposure and bladder cancer (BC) diagnosis remains ill-defined. This study aims to cross-correlate and temporally associate changes in United States (US) tobacco tax and consumption with BC incidence. US tobacco consumption, tobacco tax data, and BC incidence rates from 1975-2019 were retrieved. A cross-correlation lag time for tobacco tax and consumption on BC incidence was calculated while controlling for national health expenditure. Proxied lag weighted semi-log linear models to determine the rate of change in BC incidence rates associated with a 1% change in tobacco tax percentages on a national and state level. A 1% increase in tobacco tax was associated with a 1.77% decrease in BC incidence over a 6-year period (R2=0.9687, p=0.00044). 22 states had a statistically significant decline in BC incidences correlated with increasing tobacco taxation. Reduction in BC incidence >0.5% were observed in states along the Western and Eastern US borders. Montana, Utah, Nebraska, Arkansas, and Tennessee did not have decreasing BC incidences from tobacco tax increases. California had the most drastic decline in BC incidence (1.98%). Nationally, tobacco consumption decrease in 1 pack per capita was associated with a 0.47% decrease in BC incidence over a 28-year period (R2=0.984, p=0.00011). Declining US tobacco consumption may indicate significant reduction in BC incidence through 2047. Primary prevention through adaptation of state-legislated tax changes may contribute to a reduction in BC incidence in states lying within the Central US. A national tobacco tax initative can be considered given the improvement in population health.

The Burden of Food Insecurity on Quality of Life in Adults with Diabetes.

Background: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between food insecurity and physical- and mental-health-related quality of life in adults with diabetes. Methods: Using two years of national Medical Expenditure Panel Survey data (2016-2017), we investigated the relationship between food insecurity and physical-health-related (PCS) and mental-health-related (MCS) quality of life in adults with diabetes. PCS and MCS were measured with the Short-Form 12 health survey and food insecurity was measured with the USDA 10-item adult scale. Analyses were weighted to represent the US adult population. Adjusted linear regression models, including covariates of age, gender, education, race/ethnicity, marital status, region, poverty level, employment status, health insurance, and comorbidities were used. Results: After adjustment, food-insecure adults with diabetes maintained significantly lower quality of life compared to food-secure adults with diabetes (PCS: -3.44, 95%CI -4.63, -2.25; MCS: -5.37, 95%CI -6.68, -4.06). This drop in PCS was larger than the drop for chronic conditions, including arthritis (-3.77, 95%CI -5.02, -2.52), emphysema (-2.82, 95%CI -5.12, -0.53), stroke (-2.63, 95%CI -4.11, -1.15), cancer (-2.59, 95%CI -4.00, -1.17), and heart attack (2.58, 95%CI 4.68, 0.48). Similarly, the drop for MCS was larger than for chronic pain (-2.37, 95%CI -3.24, -1.50) and arthritis (-1.31, 95%CI -2.28, -0.33). Conclusions: Food insecurity was associated with a significant reduction in both physical- and mental-health-related quality of life in adults with diabetes, with a magnitude of effect greater than adjusted estimates for the drop in quality of life for key chronic conditions. Addressing food insecurity through integration of social and medical care may lead to improvements in quality of life for adults with diabetes.

Determinants of Healthcare Expenditure: A Cross-Sectional Analysis at the Country Level

This study examines the determinants of healthcare expenditure through a cross-sectional analysis of 153 countries using 2018 data. The research employs a classical linear regression model to identify key socioeconomic and demographic factors influencing healthcare spending per capita, expressed in PPP (Purchasing Power Parity). The results show that GDP per capita, public health expenditure as a percentage of GDP, physician availability, and out-of-pocket healthcare costs are statistically significant determinants of healthcare spending. Specifically, the analysis highlights the non-linear relationship between GDP and healthcare expenditure, where wealthier nations tend to spend disproportionately more on healthcare. Public investment in healthcare and the availability of medical professionals also play crucial roles in shaping national healthcare expenditures. Out-of-pocket expenses by households further increase overall healthcare costs, especially in countries with lower public funding. The proposed model explains 96.5% of the variation in healthcare expenditure, suggesting that the selected variables are strong predictors of healthcare spending. These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers, particularly in the context of balancing public healthcare financing and improving access to medical services while managing overall costs.

Analysis of budget expenditures of the Republic of Kazakhstan

This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the structure of the budget system and expenditures of the Republic of Kazakhstan (ROK), which are characterized by complexity and multilevel and reflect the amount of financial resources and the size of budget constraints at the levels of the budget system. The main focus is on the republican budget, which generates the country's revenues and finances national expenditures directed to such areas as defense, national security, foreign policy, as well as projects and assistance programs. The functioning of the budget system is regulated by regulatory legal acts (NPAs), including the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Budget Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan and other NPAs, which ensures transparent and effective management of public finances. The Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Kazakhstan plays a key role in the implementation of the state financial policy, coordinating work with other ministries and departments.The article presents the results of the analysis conducted by the author of this article of the execution of republican budgets for the period 2018-2022. It is shown that all three categories of budgets (republican, regional and local) demonstrate steady growth in spending, which can lead to increased public investment and expansion of government programs. Special attention is paid to the increased level of education and health care, which ensures the priority and higher level of efficiency of these sectors in comparison with other sectors of the economy of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Based on the analysis, a SWOT analysis was conducted, which revealed the strengths and weaknesses of the budget system of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as identified threats and opportunities to improve its condition.The article concludes with recommendations on ensuring the sustainability of the budget system and improving the efficiency of budget funds, including measures to increase transparency and efficiency of budget processes, optimize budget allocation, improve the effectiveness of social programs, reduce public debt, develop interdepartmental experience and use the state experience achieved in a number of sectors and territories.

Impact of the Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) infrastructure on the returns to higher education in Mexico: A gender analysis

This paper aims to analyze the impact of access to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) on the private returns to higher education (HE) focusing on gender inequality in 2020. Methodology: To evaluate the above impact a set of Mincerian equations will be estimated. The proposed approach mitigates biases associated with self-selection and individual heterogeneity. Data: The database comes from the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey (Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares, ENIGH) from 2020. Results: Empirical evidence suggests that individuals that have HE have a positive and greater impact on their salary income compared to those with a lower educational level, being women that do not have access to ICT those with the lowest wage return. Policy: Access to ICT should be considered as one of the criteria that integrate social deprivation in the measurement of multidimensional poverty. Likewise, it is necessary to design public policies that promote the strengthening and creation of educational and/or training systems in technological matters for women. Limitations: No distinction was made between individuals that graduated from public or private schools, nor was income from sources other than work considered. Originality: This investigation evaluates the impact of access to ICT on the returns to higher education in Mexico, in 2020, addressing gender disparity.

Medición de la pobreza multidimensional en México mediante un análisis bibliométrico y de ecuaciones estructurales

Objective. Multidimensional poverty in Mexico was measured through a bibliometric and structural equation analysis. Design/Methodology/Approach. We used the technique developed by the National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (CONEVAL, in Spanish) in Mexico, based on information from the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey (ENIGH, in Spanish). The Smart PLS software also used the partial least squares (PLS) technique. Regarding the bibliometric part, a descriptive analysis was performed using the Scopus database and VOSviewer as a processing tool. Results/Discussion. The results showed that basic housing services, access to food, quality, housing spaces, and income significantly impact multidimensional poverty. The PLS model showed adequate predictive superiority and goodness of fit. From the bibliometric point of view, there was clear interest on the part of the academic and scientific community in developing knowledge in this field. Conclusions. The effectiveness of the PLS model for measuring multidimensional poverty in Mexico is demonstrated, and several determinants are highlighted. Future studies are recommended to improve social policies and poverty reduction strategies. Originality/Value. The study provides a novel approach by using the PLS model to measure multidimensional poverty in Mexico. It applies a robust exploratory methodology that can be replicated in similar contexts and is supported by bibliometric contrast.

The evolution of Japanese real GDP components in the time–frequency domain: The disappearance of the investment accelerator effect?

AbstractUnderstanding the interaction between national income GDP expenditure components is a key part of the study of the macroeconomics of any country. The general aim of this study is to explore this interaction between the GDP expenditure components in the time–frequency domain for the country of Japan, obtain some stylized facts and then compare them with those of the United States. The main result shows that the cyclical interactions between consumption and investment are typical of an “accelerator” effect and operate at several different frequencies, but that the several different cycles evident in the data phase out in the 1990s, once secular stagnation started to take hold. We hypothesize that Japan's investment drivers then changed to be dependent on the external sector by the 2000s. A secondary result is that Japanese fiscal policy appears to have been largely ineffective in terms of creating cyclical interactions with other GDP components.

Wagner’s law revisited: investigating the asymmetric relationship between national income and public expenditure in India

Wagner’s law revisited: investigating the asymmetric relationship between national income and public expenditure in India

The Private Health Insurance Underwriting Cycle, Economic Profits and Their Determinants

The underwriting cycle in private health insurance refers to fluctuations in profit margin over time. This research, a novel effort, aims to understand the peak-to-trough magnitudes and determinants of the industry-wide underwriting cycle. Historical industry-wide profits and losses have not been previously estimated, making this study a significant contribution to the field. Based on the reports of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (national health expenditures reports), this study begins by constructing the underwriting cycle of private health insurance performance over the last six decades, from which profit margins can be estimated. Expressing the net cost of private health insurance and personal health expenditures as a fraction of the premium facilitates the analysis, which employs standard methods. The results show, over a 62-year period from 1960 through 2022, that there are 12 underwriting cycles. The capacity to generate profits is influenced by the cost of personal healthcare expenditures, competition for enrollment, and the availability of substitutes. Evidence of reduced capacity for profitability is a finding that additional enrollment does not contribute to profits and that private health insurance enrollment is generally declining. Cumulative profits due to the sales of private health insurance only over the 62 years assessed are negative.

The Role of Public Health in Reducing Health Costs

The high cost of health care has become a pressing concern for individuals, governments, and organizations alike. Public health strategies, through preventive measures and health promotion, offer an effective way to reduce national healthcare expenditures while improving population health outcomes. This paper examines the role of public health in reducing health costs by focusing on prevention, early interventions, and community-based health initiatives. The paper also examines successful case studies of public health programs that have effectively reduced long-term costs, and highlights challenges in implementing these programs. As funding and political will remain key obstacles, the integration of public health initiatives with healthcare systems promises significant economic and social benefits. Keywords: Public health, health care costs, preventive care, health promotion, chronic disease, early intervention.

Protocol for Diagnostic Test Accuracy Study: Evaluation of Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) in Prediction of Inferior Alveolar Nerve Injury as Compared to Orthopantomography (OPG) Secondary to Surgical Removal of Impacted Mandibular Third Molars.

Introduction Impairment of the inferior alveolar/dental nerve (IAN) is a relatively uncommon complication after lower wisdom tooth removal. Studies report varying incidences of IAN injury, with dysesthesia being noted as particularly distressing and 0-0.9% cases extending for a long duration. Neurosensory disruptions can severely impact speech, chewing, swallowing, and social interactions, leading to chronic pain and a lower quality of life. It also poses a risk of inadvertent injuries during meals. Although orthopantomogram (OPG) is primarily used for diagnosis, but when the lower wisdom tooth and nerve are in close approximation, cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) is recommended, despite its higher cost and radiation exposure. A white paper on third molar management necessitates further research on CBCT's role, citing conflicting evidence. Further in a multicentric trial, the difference between the OPG versus CBCT group was not statistically significant due to the low incidence of IAN injuries. They have emphasized the need for more well-designed studies to reach a statistically significant conclusion by meta-analyses. Hence, this study aims to provide additional evidence. Methods It is a two-arm, parallel, diagnostic study design involving individuals between the ages of 18 and 50 years, requiring lower wisdom tooth removal that is closely approximated with the nerve. Eligible adults, based on the specified inclusion/exclusion criteria, will be recruited into the study; informed consent will be obtained; then assigned randomly to the OPG or CBCT group using a random computer-generated sequence. Extractions will be done under local anesthesia using a standard surgical protocol with odontectomy. Surgical variables will include the experience of the surgeon, amongst others. The outcome variables will be recorded using patient interviews (subjective) and objective examinations from day one up to six months after surgery. The primaryoutcome will comprise the number of patients reporting abnormal sensations post-surgery. Secondary outcomes will include objectively confirmed IAN injuries and permanent IAN injuries (>6 months). Results will be analyzed statistically to look for significance and possible risk factors associated with it. Results If a statistically significant result is obtained, then we can deliberately reduce CBCT referrals and reserve them only for high-risk cases, wherein the risk of IAN injury cannot be predicted by OPG alone. If the experience of the surgeon proves to be an important risk factor, then it can also help refer high-risk patients to surgeons with more experience. Conclusion If CBCT proves to be statistically superior to OPG in the prediction of nerve injury, then we will be able to avoid significant morbidity and improve the quality of life of such patients by either modifying the surgical steps or by choosing other conservative treatment modalities. Further, this may reduce unnecessary CBCT referrals, thus reducing radiation exposure, the cost to patients, and, in turn, national healthcare expenditure. Besides, CBCT is not available at all centers, so a lot of low-risk patients can be managed safely at primary health centers, thus reducing the urban patient load.

The hidden costs of inflation: A critical analysis of industrial development and environmental consequences.

The study draws attention to the associations between monetary and economic elements and their potential environmental impacts. The study uses time series data from 1960 to 2022 to examine the connection between CO2 emissions, industrial growth, GNE, and inflation in China. The researchers utilized the well-known econometric technique of nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) to examine nonlinear correlations between these variables. The results reveal that GDP, inflation, and economic development influence long-term CO2 emissions. The strong positive correlation between gross national expenditures and economic activity increases CO2 emissions. In the short run, CO2 emissions are positively and statistically significantly affected by inflation. While inflation temporarily affects CO2 emissions, this effect dissipates with time. Industrial activity increases CO2 emissions, and China's fast industrialization has damaged the environment. The energy-intensive fertiliser manufacturing process and fossil fuels increase CO2 emissions. The research shows how government officials and academics may collaborate to create tailored measures to alleviate the environmental impacts of economic activity.