National Environmental Quality Standards Research Articles

Novel Zeolite 5Å-Co-Fe based catalytic ozonation process for the efficient degradation of Oxytetracycline in veterinary pharmaceutical wastewater

Public health and the aquatic environment face significant threats from pollution originating from pharmaceutical wastewater (PhWW) containing stubborn antibiotics. Conventional treatment methods fail to fully eradicate these antibiotics and other contaminants such as COD and BOD5 due to the complex organic compound mixtures present in PhWW. Additionally, PhWW exhibits low biodegradability and high toxicity, mainly due to the persistence of antibiotics. This pressing issue has prompted the scientific community to seek more effective and cost-efficient treatment solutions for detoxifying PhWW. Hence, this study explores the catalytic efficiency of zeolite 5 Å (Z5Å) coated with cobalt and iron (Z5Å-Co-Fe) for the abatement of one of the most persistent organic pollutants oxytetracycline (OTC) as a target pollutant. The synthesized catalyst is assessed using various analytical techniques such as FTIR, SEM, and EDX analysis. Results show that the heterogeneous catalytic ozonation using cobalt and iron-loaded zeolite (Z5Å-Co-Fe/O3) achieves OTC removal rates of 8%, 67%, and 95% through adsorption, ozonation (O3), and Z5Å-Co-Fe/O3 processes, respectively, at pH 6, 1.6 mg/min of O3flow and 15 min of treatment time. Moreover, the Z5Å-Co-Fe/O3 process demonstrates higher cost-effectiveness compared to other methods, and electrical energy per order (EEO) of 1.47 USD and 1.62 kWh per cubic meter of PhWW respectively. Additionally, it enhances the biodegradability of PhWW from 0.30 to 0.51, making it more suitable for further secondary treatment. Furthermore, Z5Å-Co-Fe/O3 treated PhWW meets National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) and holds promise as a pretreatment option for industrial-scale conventional treatment systems. Therefore, it is concluded that the Z5Å-Co-Fe/O3 process was found to be highly efficient for the degradation of OTC in real PhWW matrix and it may help to achieve UN sustainable development goals (SDGs)

In-depth characterization of particulate matter in a highly polluted urban environment at the foothills of Himalaya-Karakorum Region.

In recent years, the rising levels of atmospheric particulate matter (PM) have an impact on the earth's system, leading to undesirable consequences on various aspects like human health, visibility, and climate. The present work is carried out over an insufficiently studied but polluted urban area of Peshawar, which lies at the foothills of the famous Himalaya and Karakorum area, Northern Pakistan. The particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10µm, i.e., PM10 are collected and analyzed for mineralogical, morphological, and chemical properties. Diverse techniques were used to examine the PM10 samples, for instance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy along with energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, proton-induced x-ray emission, and an OC/EC carbon analyzer. The 24h average PM10 mass concentration along with standard deviation was investigated to be 586.83 ± 217.70µg/m3, which was around 13 times greater than the permissible limit of the world health organization (45µg/m3) and 4 times the Pakistan national environmental quality standards for ambient PM10 (150µg/m3). Minerals such as crystalline silicate, carbonate, asbestiform minerals, sulfate, and clay minerals were found using FTIR and XRD investigations. Microscopic examination revealed particles of various shapes, including angular, flaky, rod-like, crystalline, irregular, rounded, porous, chain, spherical, and agglomeration structures. This proved that the particles had geogenic, anthropogenic, and biological origins. The average value of organic carbon, elemental carbon, and total carbon is found to be 91.56 ± 43.17, 6.72 ± 1.99, and 102.41 ± 44.90µg/m3, respectively. Water-soluble ions K+ and OC show a substantial association (R = 0.71). Prominent sources identified using Principle component analysis (PCA) are anthropogenic, crustal, industrial, and electronic combustion. This research paper identified the potential sources of PM10, which are vital for preparing an air quality management plan in the urban environment of Peshawar.

Monitoring of university wastewater within the sewage system and its performance evaluation through integrated constructed wetlands.

Rapid increase in population and industrialization has not only improved the lifestyle but adversely affected the quality and availability of water leading to ample amount of wastewater generation. The major contribution towards wastewater production is from sewage. Regular monitoring and treatment of sewage water is necessary to conserve and enhance the quality of water. The present study focuses on monitoring of sewage water within the sewage system of a residential university. A total of 16 samples from different manholes were collected for physicochemical and heavy metals analysis and compared with final effluent collected from integrated constructed wetlands (ICWs) to assess its removal efficiency. The mean concentrations of influent and effluent were compared with national environmental quality standards (NEQS) for municipal discharge (pH6-9, COD 150mg/L, TSS 200mg/L and TDS 3500mg/L) and international agricultural reuse standards (IARS) (pH6-8, COD <150mg/L, TSS < 100mg/L) respectively. Among all physicochemical parameters, influent values for chemical oxygen demand (COD) (169.56-258.36) mg/L exceeded the limit of NEQS for discharge into inland waters, whereas for total suspended solids (TSS) the concentration exceeded for discharge into STP (406mg/L) and inland waters (202.33mg/L). However, effluent concentrations for all the parameters were found within the permissible limit set by IARS. The removal efficiency for different parameters such as phosphate- phosphorus (PO43-P), COD, TSS, total dissolved solids (TDS) and total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) were 52, 53, 54, 35, and 36%, respectively. Heavy metal concentrations were compared with WHO guidelines among which lead (Pb) in effluent and chromium (Cr) in influent exceeded the limit (Pb 0.01 and Cr 0.05mg/L). Interpolation results showed that zone 2 was highly contaminated in comparison to zone 1 & 3. Statistical analysis showed that correlation of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals was found significant (p < 0.05).

Domestic wastewater treatment by Pistia stratiotes in constructed wetland

The objective of the study was to evaluate the performance of Pistia stratiotes for treatment of domestic wastewater in a free surface water flow constructed wetland. The objective of the study was to evaluate contaminants removal efficiency of the constructed wetland vegetated with P. stratiotes in treatment of domestic wastewater against Hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 10, 20 and 30 days was investigated. This asks for newer and efficient low-cost nature-based water treatment system which along with cost takes into consideration the sustainability of the ecosystem. Five constructed wetland setups improved the wastewater quality and purify it significantly by reducing the TDS by 83%, TSS by 82%, BOD by 82%, COD by 81%, Chloride by 80%, Sulfate by 77%, NH3 by 84% and Total Oil and Grease by 74%. There was an increase in pH of about 11.9%. Color and odor of wastewater was also improved significantly and effectively. It was observed that 30 days’ HRT was optimum for the treatment of domestic wastewater. The final effluent was found to be suitable as per national environmental quality standards and recycled for watering plants and crop irrigation but not for drinking purposes. The treatment in constructed wetland system was found to be economical, as the cost of construction only was involved and operational and maintenance cost very minimal. Even this research was conducted on the sole purpose of commuting the efficiency of pollutant removal in short span time.

Urban green space area mitigates the accumulation of heavy metals in urban soils

Despite that the heavy metals in urban soils pose a threat to public health, the critical factors that influence their concentrations in urban soils are not well understood. In this study, we conducted a survey of surface soil samples from urban green spaces in Shanghai, to analyze the concentrations of the key heavy metals. The results showed that Zn was the most abundant metal with an average concentration of 122.99 mg kg−1, followed by Pb (32.72 mg kg−1) and Cd (0.23 mg kg−1). All concentrations were found to be below the risk screening values defined by the National Environmental Quality Standards for soils of development land in China (GB36600-2018), indicating no current risk in Shanghai. However, there was a clear accumulation of heavy metals, as the mean concentrations were significantly higher than the background values. Furthermore, we explored the relationships between key heavy metals with population density, GDP and green space area. Both Spearman correlation and Random Forest analysis indicated that per capita green space area (pGSA) and population density were the most crucial factors influencing the status of heavy metals in urban soils, unlike edaphic factors e.g. SOM content in farmland soils. Specifically, there was a significantly positive linear correlation between heavy metal concentrations and population density, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.3 to 0.4. However, the correlation with pGSA was found to be non-linear. The nonlinear regression analysis revealed threshold values between heavy metals concentrations and pGSA (e.g Zn 22.22 m2, Pb 24.92 m2, and Cd 25.92 m2), with a sharp reduction in heavy metal concentrations below the threshold and a slow reduction above the threshold. It suggests that an increase in per capita green space area can mitigate the accumulation of heavy metals caused by growing population density, but the effect is limited after the threshold. Our findings not only provide insights into the distribution patterns of heavy metals in the urban soils at the local scale, but also contribute to the urban greening at the global scale and offer guidance for city planning in the face of increasing population densities over the coming decades.

Productive Management of Garbage: A Case of Rawalpindi Waste Management Company (RWMC)

This study quantifies the role and importance of Rawalpindi Waste Management Company, the whole processes that take place in it, and the policies on which they work. Urbanization has led to the increasing use of industrial by-products. Industries influence the environment in two folds one is creating waste during the manufacturing process and the second is products make more waste after they are used. Waste is managed by using (R-3) Reuse, Recycle, and Restore. Waste composition varied from time to time and region to region. RWMC’s target is Clean and Green Rawalpindi. Waste from Households, Hospitals, industries, and others is properly discarded by fulfilling the National Environmental Quality Standards. In this regard, the main concern is to focus on ‘’Sustainable Development’’ to secure our environment for the next generations.

IR-based device to acquire real-time online heart ECG signals of fish (Cyprinus carpio) to evaluate the water quality

Water quality monitoring is a challenging task due to continuous pollution. The rapid development of engineering technologies has paved the way for the development of efficient and convenient computer-based online continuous water-quality assessment techniques. Techniques based on biological-responses are gaining attention, worldwide. Different biosensors have been developed in recent years to monitor real-time biological responses to evaluate water-quality. The survival and function of various organs of the organism depends on the cardiac system. Alterations in the cardiac system could signify the occurrence/initiation of stress in the organism. We developed a real-time online cardiac function assessment system-OCFAS to acquire fish ECG-signals. We obtained P-wave, R-wave, T-wave, PR-intervals, QT-intervals and QRS-complex continuously, which did not affect the normal activities of carp. We exposed Cyprinus carpio to different concentrations (National Environmental Quality Standards) of ammonia for 48 h. Our OCFAS has precisely acquired the required ECG-signals. A real-time dataset reveals sensitivity to ammonia in carp ECG-indexes. Compared with the control group the P-wave, R-wave and T-wave were weaker in ammonia-treated groups. In contrast, the PR-intervals, QT-intervals and QRS-complex were prolonged in the ammonia-treatment groups. The self-organizing map signifies that the PR-intervals, the QRS-complex and the QT-intervals are consistent with environmental stress. Linear regression analysis also quantitatively signifies that the PR interval has the highest R2 value and the lowest SSE-value, followed by the QRS complex and the QT interval. A concentration-related effect was observed in the ammonia treated groups. The integrated biomarker response (IBRv2) index was used to determine the overall stress of ammonia on carp heart ECG-indexes. IBRv2 also supports the real-time response of carp to ammonia stress. Ammonia levels in the aquaculture and water environment require special attention to avoid its adverse effects on the health of aquatic biota. Our study emphasizes the importance of online real-time fish ECG for water-quality assessment.

Evaluation of Phytoremediation Potential of an Aquatic Macrophyte (Eichhornia crassipes) in Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater generation is a major concern, as most of it goes untreated. Industries, urban areas, and agriculture are the major contributors to wastewater. Phytoremediation is an effective method of wastewater treatment. However, the potential of local aquatic species for hyper-accumulation of heavy metals remains elusive. This study focuses on evaluating the native macrophyte Eichhornia crassipes for phytoremediation potential in different source-based water environments: freshwater (FW), industrial (IW), and urban wastewater (UW). Physico-chemical analysis was conducted on water samples (five samples from each source) along with the corresponding E. crassipes plants for assessing physiological, nutritional, and heavy metal parameters. The results showed distinct characteristics among the water sources. The FW had a high pH, and the IW exhibited elevated levels of electrical conductivity (EC: 1746 μS cm−1), total dissolved solids (TDS: 864 mg L−1), chloride (Cl−: 557.83 mg L−1), sulfate (SO4−: 137.27 mg L−1), and calcium (Ca++: 77.83 mg L−1) ions. The UW exhibited high bicarbonate (HCO3−: 123.38 mg L−1), sodium (Na+: 154 mg L−1), and potassium (K+: 37.12 mg L−1) ions. The Cd contamination exceeded World Health Organization (WHO) limits (0.003 mg L−1) in the FW (0.05 mg L−1 in FW-5) and UW (0.05 mg L−1 in UW-3); Cr contamination was higher than the permissible limits of the WHO, National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS), and the European Union (EU) (0.05 mg L−1) in FW, IW, and UW; arsenic (As) in IW exceeded the WHO, United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and EU limits of 10 μg L−1, and Pb in UW exceeded the WHO (0.01 mg L−1), NEQS (0.05 mg L−1), and EU (0.01 mg L−1) limits. E. crassipes displayed different traits depending on the water sources. FW-grown plants had a higher biomass and chlorophyll-b content, while UW-grown plants had higher photosynthesis rates and chlorophyll-a content. Shoots accumulated more Na+, K+, and Ca++ ions than roots. Metal translocation from roots to shoots followed specific patterns for each source: the TFs of Zn = 3.62 in FW &gt; Cd = 2.34 in UW &gt; Cr = 1.61 and Pb = 1.29 in IW and BCFs were found in ascending order: Zn &gt; Ni &gt; Cd &gt; As &gt; Pb in FW, Cd &gt; Zn &gt; Ni &gt; Cr &gt; Pb &gt; As in IW, and Cd &gt; Ni &gt; Pb &gt; Cr &gt; Zn &gt; As in UW. The bioconcentration factor was higher in the roots than in the shoots. These findings suggest that E. crassipes shows promise as a phytoremediation option for heavy metal-contaminated wastewater due to its ability to thrive in harsh wastewater conditions with a higher TF &gt; 1 and BCF &gt; 1. Therefore, the utilization of these macrophytes holds potential for wastewater treatment.

Water Quality Index and Human Health Risk Assessment of Drinking Water in Selected Urban Areas of a Mega City.

The present study was conducted to evaluate the quality of drinking water and assess the potential health hazards due to water contaminants in selected urban areas of Lahore, Pakistan. Water samples were collected from ten sites and analyzed for different physico-chemical parameters including turbidity, color, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrates, fluoride, residual chlorine, and total hardness. Additionally, heavy metal (arsenic) and microbial parameters (E. coli) were also determined in the water samples. Drinking water quality evaluation indices, including the water quality index (WQI) for physico-chemical and biological parameters and human health risk assessment (HHRA) for heavy metal were estimated using the analytical results of the target parameters. It was found in most of the areas that the levels of arsenic, fluoride, TDS, and residual chlorine were higher than those recommended by the National Environmental Quality Standard (NEQS) and World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. In addition to the physico-chemical parameters, microbial content (E. coli) was also found in the drinking water samples of the selected areas. Statistical analysis of the results indicated that levels of target parameters in drinking water samples are significantly different between sampling sites. The WQI for all physico-chemical and microbial parameters indicated that drinking water in most of the areas was unfit and unsuitable (WQI > 100) for drinking purposes except for the water of Bhatti Gate and Chota Gaon Shahdara with a WQI of 87 and 91, respectively. Drinking water in these areas had a very poor WQI rating. According to HHRA, drinking water from the selected sites was found to be of high risk to children and adults. The carcinogenic risk of arsenic indicated that all samples were of high risk to both adults and children (4.60 and 4.37 × 10-3, respectively). Regular monitoring of drinking water quality is essential, and proactive measures must be implemented to ensure the treatment and availability of safe drinking water in urban areas.

Multivariate analysis of heavy metals in pharmaceutical wastewaters of National Industrial Zone, Rawat, Pakistan

Water is the basic necessity of life, and its quality affects biological processes. Anthropogenic activities increase concentration of harmful pollutants like heavy metals in the environment. The current study is the first attempt for the assessment of heavy metals in the wastewaters released from pharmaceutical industries of the National Industrial Zone, Rawat, Pakistan. The metal concentrations depicted the following trend: Fe » Zn > Ni > Pb > Mn > Cr6+ > Cd > Cu. Mn, Cu and Zn were recorded within the maximum permissible limits of Pakistan National Environmental Quality Standards (Pak-NEQS) and World Health Organization (WHO) in all the pharmaceutical wastewater samples; but Cd, Pb, Fe, Cr6+ and Ni surpassed one or both the admissible limits which can be the potential threat to the underground water resources, aquatic life and human health. The highest concentration was detected for Fe (10.86 ± 0.01 mg.L−1) in the wastewater sample of MB-12, which was much higher than the maximum NEQS limit of 2 mg.L−1. Maximum significant correlations were observed for Cr with various water quality parameters, including dissolved oxygen, phosphates, salinity and Cu during Pearson's correlation analysis. Multivariate techniques including cluster analysis and principal factor analysis were used to extract the latent information from the data set to assess the water quality. Three principal factors were extracted during factor analysis containing high positive factor loadings of Cd, Fe; Cu, Mn; and Pb in the principal factors 1, 2 and 3 respectively, indicating the contribution of the anthropogenic and industrial operations in the water contamination due to the discharge of improperly treated or untreated pharmaceutical wastewater. Cluster analysis based dendrogram resulted in the formation of single cluster containing reverse osmosis treated wastewater samples along with the untreated wastewaters which strongly recommends the need to adopt wastewater treatment methods with efficient processes for proper discharge of their pharmaceutical effluents into fresh waters, thus reducing the potential ecological hazards.

Impact of Smog on Wheat Productivity and Determinants of Smog Adaptation Options: A Case Study of Layyah and Lodhran

Smog is very harmful to agricultural productivity as it directly affects the growth and yield of crops. This study investigates the impact of smog on the wheat crop. For the present analysis, the study chose two agricultural districts (Layyah and Lodhran) of Pakistan. A survey was conducted from July to September 2019, by 400 farmers. Fully structured questionnaire is used for data collection while logit regression is used for empirical estimation. The results reveal that smog has a negative effect on wheat productivity as the size and weight of wheat grains decrease due to smog. The results also depict that the farmers’ perception regarding adaptations options improves productivity. The results show that education, extension services, irrigation source, and credit services significantly impact adaptation options. The study suggests that government should take serious steps to get rid of smog as it adversely affects theproductivity of crops. For this purpose, strict enforcement of National Environment Quality Standards (NEQS) for the reduction of emission of smoke and other pollutants in the air by industry and other sectors can be useful. Additionally, government policy should target improving farmers’ education (training and refresher courses), extension services, and credit facilities to increase farmers’ adaptations.

Characteristics and Risk Assessment of Environmentally Persistent Free Radicals (EPFRs) of PM2.5 in Lahore, Pakistan.

Environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) are an emerging pollutant and source of oxidative stress. Samples of PM2.5 were collected at the urban sites of Lahore in both winter and summertime of 2019. The chemical composition of PM2.5, EPRF concentration, OH radical generation, and risk assessment of EPFRs in PM2.5 were evaluated. The average concentration of PM2.5 in wintertime and summertime in Lahore is 15 and 4.6 times higher than the national environmental quality standards (NEQS) of Pakistan and WHO. The dominant components of PM2.5 are carbonaceous species. The concentration of EPFRs and reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as OH radicals, is higher in the winter than in the summertime. The secondary inorganic ions do not contribute to the generation of OH radicals, although the contribution of SO42+, NO3-, and NH4+ to the mass concentration of PM2.5 is greater in summertime. The atmospheric EPFRs are used to evaluate the exposure risk. The EPFRs in PM2.5 and cigarette smoke have shown similar toxicity to humans. In winter and summer, the residents of Lahore inhaled the amount of EPFRs equivalent to 4.0 and 0.6 cigarettes per person per day, respectively. Compared to Joaquin County, USA, the residents of Lahore are 1.8 to 14.5 times more exposed to EPFRs in summer and wintertime. The correlation analysis of atmospheric EPFRs (spin/m3) and carbonaceous species of PM2.5 indicates that coal combustion, biomass burning, and vehicle emissions are the possible sources of EPFRs in the winter and summertime. In both winter and summertime, metallic and carbonaceous species correlated well with OH radical generation, suggesting that vehicular emissions, coal combustion, and industrial emissions contributed to the OH radical generation. The study's findings provide valuable information and data for evaluating the potential health effects of EPFRs in South Asia and implementing effective air pollution control strategies.

Impact of Smog on Wheat Productivity and Determinants of Smog Adaptation Options: A Case Study of Layyah and Lodhran

Smog is very harmful to agricultural productivity as it directly affects the growth and yield of crops. This study investigates the impact of smog on the wheat crop. For the present analysis, the study chose two agricultural districts (Layyah and Lodhran) of Pakistan. A survey was conducted from July to September 2019, by 400 farmers. Fully structured questionnaire is used for data collection while logit regression is used for empirical estimation. The results reveal that smog has a negative effect on wheat productivity as the size and weight of wheat grains decrease due to smog. The results also depict that the farmers’ perception regarding adaptations options improves productivity. The results show that education, extension services, irrigation source, and credit services significantly impact adaptation options. The study suggests that government should take serious steps to get rid of smog as it adversely affects theproductivity of crops. For this purpose, strict enforcement of National Environment Quality Standards (NEQS) for the reduction of emission of smoke and other pollutants in the air by industry and other sectors can be useful. Additionally, government policy should target improving farmers’ education (training and refresher courses), extension services, and credit facilities to increase farmers’ adaptations.

Evaluation of water genotoxicity using comet assay in two freshwater fish species, Wallago attu and Ompok bimaculatus in Kabul River, Pakistan

The investigation determines the pollution status of river Kabul and its effects on the DNA of Wallago attu and Ompok bimaculatus. River Kabul gets pollutants from Amanghar industries and sewages from Mardan, Nowshera and Peshawar. Water and fish samples are taken to study heavy metals and physical parameters. The overall sequence of physical parameters in water samples was TDS&gt;TSS&gt;EC&gt;TA&gt;Cl&gt;Na&gt;pH&gt;K, and that of heavy metals was Zn&gt;Cr&gt;Mn&gt; Fe&gt;Cu&gt;Pb&gt;Ni&gt;Cd. The studied parameters in all the water samples except TSS are within the proposed limits of national environmental quality standards. The overall trend of analysed water samples was C&gt;B&gt;A. The study determines the effects of water pollution on the DNA of Ompok bimaculatus and Wallago attu tissues. Therefore, degrees of DNA damage such as TCS and comet class are studied in gills, liver, muscles, and intestines of Wallago attu and Ompok bimaculatus. The trend of DNA damage in examined tissues was intestine&gt;skin&gt;liver&gt;gills&gt;muscle, and in studied fish species, it was Ompok bimaculatus&gt;Wallago attu. More significant DNA damage was observed in the intestine and smaller in the muscle. More DNA damage was found in Ompok bimaculatus and less in Wallago attu. The investigation recommended detoxifying the effluents and sewages before discharging them in River Kabul.

Evaluating the impact of Nalla Lai contamination on drinking quality of groundwater in Rawalpindi city, Pakistan

Abstract The scientific report assessed the impact of Nalla Lai wastewater on the groundwater quality of Rawalpindi city, Pakistan. A total of 19 wastewater and 49 groundwater samples were collected during September and October 2016 and have been analyzed in the laboratory to detect different water quality parameters. The results revealed that BOD (biological oxygen demand), COD (chemical oxygen demand), iron, and cadmium values in many wastewater samples were beyond the recommended value of the National Environmental Quality Standards 1997 (NEQs, 1997). In groundwater samples, the results of iron, cadmium, manganese, zinc, TDS (total dissolved solids), pH, color, and hardness were found elevated from the standard values in one or more samples as compared with the National Standard for Drinking Water Quality, 2010 (NSDWQ, 2010). The decreasing metal concentration order in groundwater samples was iron &amp;gt; zinc &amp;gt; manganese &amp;gt; copper &amp;gt; cadmium. Very interestingly, hardness was found at elevated levels in 75% of investigated groundwater samples. Microbiological contamination was detected in 83% of the analyzed groundwater samples. The study revealed the percolation of heavy metals and microbial contamination in the bore water, tube wells, hand pumps, springs, and hand-dug wells located nearby the Nalla Lai wastewater stream.

Irrigation suitability, health risk assessment and source apportionment of heavy metals in surface water used for irrigation near marble industry in Malakand, Pakistan.

Water is a vital, finite resource whose quantity and quality are deteriorating as the world population increases. The current study aims to investigate the concentration of heavy metals (HM) in surface water for irrigation purposes with associated human health risks and pollution sources near the marble industry in Malakand, Pakistan. Twenty-seven water samples were randomly collected and analyzed for HM concentration by inductively coupled plasma‒optical emission spectrometry (ICP‒OES). pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), biological oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were measured using standard methods of American Public Health Association (APHA). Irrigation suitability was assessed using specific water quality parameters. The associated health risks from ingestion and dermal exposure to heavy metals were calculated by USEPA health risk indices. Pollution sources and spatial distribution mapping were studied using compositional data analysis (CoDa) and the application of a geographic information system (GIS) to understand the changing behavior of heavy metals in surface waters. The concentrations of BOD (89%), COD (89%), Al (89%), Ca (89%), Cr (56%), Cu (78%), Fe (56%), K (34%) Mg (23%), Mn (56%), Na (89%), Ni (56%), P (89%), and Zn (11%) exceeded the safety limits of National Environmental Quality standards (NEQs) of Pakistan. The results of Kelly's ratio (KR) classified surface water as unsuitable for irrigation. The average daily doses (ADD, mg/kg/day) for Al, Cu, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn were higher in children than in adults. The hazard index (HI) for children and adults was above the threshold (HI > 1), indicating a significant risk of non-carcinogenic toxicity. The carcinogenic risk values for Cr and Ni were above the USEPA limit (1 × 10-6 to 1 × 10-4), suggesting a potential carcinogenic risk for the target population. Principal component analysis (PCA), biplot (CLR), and the CoDa-dendrogram allowed for the identification of elemental associations, and their potential source was anthropogenic rather than natural in origin. Regular monitoring and phytoremediation strategies are proposed to safeguard crops and human health.

TREATMENT OF FOOD-AGRO INDUSTRY EFFLUENT BY PHYSICO-CHEMICAL METHODS

The sugar industry wastewater contains huge amount of pollutants. Different treatment methods for the effluent are available like biological, ion-exchange, electrocoagulation, ozonation, coagulation-flocculation and adsorption etc. Rapid development by industrialization in developing countries, less environment friendly measures cause of water pollution. This in turn, results in lack of quality for drinking and irrigation. Single treatment way is not feasible to treat the highly polluted effluent and not possible to manage the permissible limits of National Environmental Quality Standards which is getting more strict with passage of time, by the regulatory bodies like Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency in Pakistan. In this study the effluent was treated by coagulation followed by activated charcoal. Three coagulants, alum, ferric chloride and ferrous sulphate were applied. Using different doses of coagulants and activated charcoal achieved remarkable results. The total dissolved solids were decreased upto 87% and total suspended solids upto 98%.

Geochemical distribution and environmental risk assessment of trace metals in groundwater released from e-waste management activities in Lahore, Pakistan.

Non-sustainable e-waste recycling and dumping activities release trace metals into the ambient environment where they may threaten the biological communities and human health. A total of 45 groundwater and 21 leachate samples were collected from seven recycling, seven dumping, and one reference site in Lahore, Pakistan, and analyzed for Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Mn, and Fe in atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Comparing the results with the World Health Organization (WHO) standards of drinking water, only the concentrations of Cu, Zn, Mn, and Fe at all sites were found to be within the permissible limits, i.e., 2, 3, 0.5, and 1mg/L, respectively. In leachates, only Cd and Mn at one site (0.204 and 8.636mg/L, respectively) exceeded the allowable limits of National Environmental Quality Standards of Municipal and Liquid industrial effluents. Geo-accumulation index, contamination factor, contamination degree, and pollution load index values showed no to moderate contamination. The ecological risk index did not exceed 150, depicting low risk to nearby biological communities. The non-carcinogenic health risk assessment showed a hazard index value greater than 1 at all sites for children (2.04) and adults (1.52), with Pb being the major contributor to adverse health impacts via ingestion and dermal route. Children (1.21 × 10-4) were at a more significant threat of carcinogenic risk from Pb and Cd as compared to adults (8.10 × 10-5). Therefore, there is a dire need to introduce sustainable e-waste recycling and managing techniques to reduce further groundwater contamination via the percolation of trace metals and to reduce the current contamination level.

Analysis of Pollution Characteristics and Sources in Surface Water in Typical Crop-Producing Areas of Qinghai Province

Currently used pesticides and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), nitrogen and phosphorus were analyzed in surface water from 26 sampling sites of agricultural areas in Qinghai Province to elucidate their pollution characteristics and sources. The results showed that most of these currently used pesticides, with the exception of chlorpyrifos, were generally not detected. However, two OCPs were commonly detected in surface water from four typical crop-producing areas. The residual concentrations of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) measured 0~1.68 ng/L and 0.41~2.41 ng/L, respectively, in the water from the four crop-producing areas. The residues of these two OCPs pesticides were much lower than the standard limit of surface water environmental quality. The main forms of HCHs and DDTs were β-HCH and pp'-DDE, respectively, indicating that the residues of HCHs and DDTs in the surface water of the four crop-producing areas in Qinghai were mainly derived from historical drugs that had degraded for a long time. The average concentrations of TN, NO3--N and NH4+-N in the surface water of 26 sampling sites of four typical crop areas in Qinghai Province were 2.95, 1.71 and 0.17 mg/L, respectively. According to the national surface water environmental quality standards, TN concentrations in 57.7% of these sampling sites exceeded the Class V water standards. The average concentration of NO3--N was more than 70 times that of NH4+-N. Nonetheless, there were no significant differences in the concentrations of TN, NO3--N and NH4+-N in the four crop-producing areas. The concentrations of NO3--N and NO3--N in the surface water were positively correlated with the TN concentration (p < 0.05), indicating that the sources of nitrogen in the surface water were relatively consistent. The average value of TP concentrations in the surface water from these sampling sites was 0.034 mg/L, with no significant differences among different producing areas. The N/P values in surface water from the four crop-producing areas of Qinghai Province had a range of 9.2~302. Phosphorus was the limiting factor for the proliferation of plankton in water. Reducing the input of phosphorus in these areas may be the key to preventing the deterioration of water quality. Significant negative and positive correlations exist between HCHs and nitrate nitrogen, and total phosphorus, respectively, which may be attributed to the proliferation of degrading microorganisms caused by the eutrophication of water. The research results will help to identify the characteristics and sources of surface water pollution in the crop-producing areas of Qinghai Province, and provide data support for Qinghai Province to build an export area for green organic agricultural and livestock products.

Assessment of environmental pollution by lead and its impact on the child's body (using the example of the Callao region in Peru)

In the presented work, based on the existing information in abstract sources, as well as freely available statistical material collected by the Department of Ecology, Environmental Protection and Occupational Health Monitoring of the Callao region in Peru, the actual problem of lead pollution on a global scale is outlined, and ways to solve it are shown on the example of Peru, a country that is one of the leaders extraction of this metal. The analysis of the degree of pollution and the impact of lead on the environment, the assessment of the levels of lead in the blood of children living in the Callao district and the associated negative impact of lead pollution on the child's body was carried out. The article shows that in children, the earliest manifestations of lead exposure occur even at a blood level of only 10.0 micrograms/dl, while in Callao, lead levels in children's bodies are higher than this value. Levels from 50 to 60 mg/dl of lead are recorded here, while the maximum value in children under the age of 12 according to the World Health Organization (WHO) should not exceed 10 mg/dl. It is shown that a high proportion of children with elevated levels of lead in the blood is associated with the presence of industrial centers specializing in the melting of metals and the disposal of lead. The direction of winds, mainly from south to north and from southwest to northeast, could explain the higher proportion of children with elevated lead levels among residents of areas located in the north and northeast. As a result of data analysis, it was revealed that the control value less than 10 micrograms/dl, used as a threshold, is insufficient to preserve the health of the population. In addition, the article discusses possible ways to reduce pollution: through the implementation of programs for monitoring and assessing the environmental quality of the environment by companies engaged in the extraction of lead minerals. It is also necessary to comply with national environmental quality standards for lead content. Guidelines for various types of economic activities leading to the reduction of environmental pollution are proposed.