National Cybersecurity Policy Research Articles

Policy and Infrastructure for Data Privacy and Data Protection in South Indian States: Issues and Prospects

In the 21st century, data privacy, data protection and cybersecurity have become challenging issues with increasing cases of data breaches and data disasters. Data privacy has emerged as one of the challenging issues after numerous cases of data breaches and manipulations in many departments, agencies, bodies and organisations in every country. A well-designed data framework may enable not just secure data privacy/protection but also enable users’ control over data through a protective and safe system to share data across organisations, leading to individual empowerment and well-being. In India, privacy still remains a complex area, which has affected data safety and protection. A number of government websites clearly mention that data will not be shared with anyone until and unless for the purpose enshrined so far. In India, there have been various policies, guidelines, strategies and initiatives for cybersecurity, data privacy, data protection and data measures, including the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023; the National Cyber Security Policy, 2013; the Information Technology Act 2000; the Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008; the Information Technology Rules, 2011 and so on. This article tries to examine policies/regulations for data privacy, data protection and data safety in South Indian states.

Proteção de dados: experiência internacional e o caso brasileiro – relação com a segurança da informação e a governança cibernética

This article presents an analysis of the main aspects related to privacy in the digital environment and the regulations that deal with the subject and its evolution, highlighting the issue of data protection both in Brazil and in other countries and blocs. In relation to the General Data Protection Law in Brazil, a detailed study has been carried out on the evolution of the issue in the country and the repercussions that the law has caused, especially in relation to the need to expand information security and cyber governance. Also reviewed are events that occurred, such as the episode of Edward Snowden’s accusations, which, together with the advent of the General Data Protection Law, led to the need to expand the Brazilian regulation that deals with cybersecurity, thus bringing the aspects that led to the elaboration and publication of a National Cybersecurity Policy in Brazil. Aspects related to surveys and audits carried out by the Federal Audit Court, the country’s external control body, are also covered, with the aim of evaluating the actions and risks related to the protection of personal data, in terms of government actions, which raises the need to issue new regulations and, once they are in force, to know data on their implementation.

Monocratic cybersecurity in the EU member states: insights from Italy, France, Germany and Spain

ABSTRACT The paper investigates the interplay between the development of cybersecurity policies and one of the major transformations underway in contemporary democratic regimes, i.e. the gradual shifting of power and decision-making authority from parliamentary assemblies towards national governments and prime ministers. The study relates the structure of cybersecurity governance in the four major EU member states (i.e. France, Germany, Italy and Spain) to the rise of the monocratic government, meant as a political process affecting the relationships both between executive and legislative powers, and between public authorities and private interests. The analysis shows how monocratization affects national cybersecurity policies in contemporary Western democracies, albeit to varying degrees in the four Eu member states. Furthermore, the analysis emphasizes the role of cybersecurity policymaking as a driver of monocratization, which is gradually expanding the power of prime ministers at the expense of parliaments.

Building Cybersecurity Capacities in Zambia’s Business Sector: Guideline for SMEs

This research explores cybersecurity awareness and implementation within Zambia’s small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), a sector increasingly targeted by cyberattacks that lead to substantial financial losses. The study’s primary aim was to enhance cyber awareness and develop actionable guidelines for SMEs in Zambia. Utilising an interpretivist philosophy and inductive approach, the methodology encompassed semi-structured interviews, cross-sectional analysis, and a comprehensive review of CISA, ENISA guidelines, and Zambia’s Data Protection Act. Findings indicate a notable deficit in cybersecurity training and awareness among SMEs. Key concerns include inadequate data security measures, a lack of formal cybersecurity policies, and a reliance on basic tools like antivirus software. In response, the study formulated targeted guidelines, emphasising the integration of cyber awareness into SME governance and risk management. These guidelines have garnered significant interest from Zambian government entities, highlighting their potential influence on national cybersecurity policy. The study contributes theoretically by contextualising international cybersecurity standards within Zambia’s unique SME landscape. Methodologically, it pioneers a Cyber Awareness Framework tailored to Zambian SMEs, underscoring the critical role of human factors in cybersecurity. Practically, the research has sparked engagement among SMEs and government bodies, demonstrating its applicability and potential for shaping policy. However, limitations include reliance on outdated demographic data and a focus on digitally enabled SMEs, potentially overlooking broader IT governance aspects and less digitized businesses. Future research should aim for comprehensive, up-to-date analysis across all SME sectors, contributing to a more inclusive and resilient cybersecurity landscape in Zambia.

INDIA'S CYBER LANDSCAPE: AN ASSESMENT OF INDIAN EFFORTS SINCE INDEPENDENCE

India, as the world's largest digitally connected democracy, recognizes the critical importance of cyberspace in the face of evolving technological dynamics. With the second-largest global internet base, India emphasizes self-sufficiency to bolster cyber resilience and reduce dependence on foreign technology. This research explores India's historical efforts, spanning from the post-independence era to contemporary times, aimed at fortifying its cyberspace. The study delves into domestic measures such as the New Electronics Policy (NEP), IT Act 2000, and the National Cyber Security Policy, complemented by the establishment of key entities like the National Informatics Centre, CERT-In, Defence Cyber Agency, and National Task Force. The analysis extends to bilateral and multilateral collaborations, elucidating India's position as a global IT industry leader. Secondary resources of data, along with the Primary documents-including India's official policies-form the basis of this research, offering a comprehensive understanding of India's digital landscape

Social automation and APT attributions in national cybersecurity

ABSTRACT Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs) are a prime concern in the formulation and implementation of national cybersecurity policies. These threats often also involve complex social engineering tactics which are undergoing a quantitative and qualitative revolution with burgeoning AI capabilities. However, the attribution of these APT activities can be mired with technical and political considerations. We analysed 142 APT groups’ attributions along with their use of social interaction vectors to ascertain the nature of the risk environment and the operational threat landscape of AI and social automation. We discover that close to 80% of APT activities could be chalked up to merely 20% of key nation-state threat actors competing with each other. We further discuss the implications of this political threat distribution for national cybersecurity environments.

Assessing nation‐state‐sponsored cyberattacks using aspects of Situational Crime Prevention

AbstractResearch SummaryThis study utilized a quantitative analysis of 246 cyberattack incidents reported in the Extremist CyberCrime Database to identify significant predictors of nation‐state‐sponsored cyberattacks relative to those performed by non‐nation‐state‐sponsored ideological actors. Clarke and Newman's Situational Crime Prevention framework for terrorism was used to identify differential opportunities to successfully affect targets on the basis of tools, weapons, and the ability to access targets in online settings. The analysis noted nation‐state‐sponsored attacks were less likely to use high‐visibility attack methods and more likely to utilize attack methods leading to data breaches. In addition, they were more likely to target state governments and military entities relative to ideological actors.Policy ImplicationsNation‐state attacks are more difficult to identify or mitigate while in process, requiring a more robust national cybersecurity policy framework to be implemented that moves beyond current practices. There is a need to better utilize all aspects of government, from legislation to grant funding, in order to deter cyberattacks from continuing into the future.

CYBER SECURITY AND DATA PRIVACY LAW IN PAKISTAN: PROTECTING INFORMATION AND PRIVACY IN THE DIGITAL AGE

The importance of cybersecurity and data privacy cannot be overstated in today's digital age. As Pakistan continues to advance its digital infrastructure and reliance on technology, the need for robust cyber security and data privacy measures has become increasingly urgent. The country has seen a surge in cyber attacks and data breaches in recent years, highlighting the need for a comprehensive legal framework to protect peoples' and organizations' sensitive information. This research paper endeavors to furnish a thorough and up-to-date examination of the existing state of cybersecurity measures and data privacy concerns in Pakistan, with a focus on the challenges and limitations that need to be addressed in order to enhance the country's cyber resilience and protect its citizens' personal information. It will examine the existing legal framework, including the Pakistan Computer Emergency Response Team (Pak-CERT) Act, 2017, the PECA Act, 2016, the Data Protection Act, 2018, and the Cybercrime Act, 2019. The paper will also analyze the various regulations and guidelines related to cybersecurity and data privacy, such as the National Cybersecurity Policy, 2018, and the Data Protection Regulations, 2018. CERT rules 2023 gives a legislative framework to deal with cyber-attacks and vulnerabilities that come up from time to time at the national, industry, and organizational levels. It sets up a working structure for technical support, operational equipment, and capacity building services. The paper will also identify and discuss the challenges and limitations of the current legal framework, including inadequate legal provisions, lack of awareness and enforcement, limited found capacity of law enforcement agencies, and insufficient coordination between government agencies. Furthermore, the paper will provide recommendations for improving the legal framework, such as strengthening legal provisions, increasing awareness and enforcement, building strength for law enforcement agencies, and enhancing coordination between government agencies. The study will employ a qualitative research approach, using a combination of literature review, legal analysis, and expert opinions. The data collection methods will include a review of relevant laws, regulations, and guidelines, as well as interviews with experts in the field of cybersecurity and data privacy. The research paper's conclusions will further the current discussion on cyber security and data privacy in Pakistan., and provide valuable insights for policymakers, regulators, and stakeholders. The paper will also serve as a resource for individuals, businesses, and organizations seeking to understand the lawful framework for cyber security and data privacy in Pakistan. Ultimately, the paper aims to provide a comprehensive knowledge of the present state of cybersecurity and data privacy law in Pakistan and to offer recommendations for improvement, with the goal of enhancing the country's cyber security and data privacy posture.

Role of Techno-Economic Coalitions in Future Cyberspace Governance: 'Backcasting' as a Method for Strategic Foresight

In an increasingly complex threat landscape, many nations struggle with developing and implementing effective cybersecurity policies for cyberspace governance at a national and international level. Balancing between the demands for establishing national sovereignty and strengthening international collaboration in cyberspace have become a problematic assignment. Collaborating with nations supporting extensively dissimilar ideologies and cybersecurity policies is controversial. Yet, it is almost impossible for a single country to achieve 'self-sufficiency' in cyberspace. Thus, in order to remain competitive, protected, and resilient one must either join or strengthen a developing techno-economic coalition with similar national cybersecurity policies and/or ideological framework. Consequently, this paper argues that techno-economic coalitions serve as an emerging issue or trend for strategic foresight in cyberspace governance in the future. This paper discusses the potential formation of techno-economic coalitions and shows how 'backcasting' can be used in strategic foresight. In this paper, 'backcasting' is not used as a method for creating a traditional strategic map to a future goal, but as a framework for determining what should have happened in order for the techno-economic coalitions to emerge in future cyberspace, i.e. for finding issues or trends that should be followed in strategic foresight today. Firstly, cyberspace governance in relation to national cybersecurity policies is contextualised. Secondly, the concept of techno-economic coalition is defined and the potential emerging techno-economic coalitions are explicated. Thirdly, 'backcasting' as a method for strategic foresight is described. Fourthly, the results of a 'backcasting' experiment in a strategic foresight workshop are presented. And finally, the future formation and role of techno-economic coalitions in cyberspace governance and in cyber defence both at a national and international level are discussed. The role of techno-economic coalitions in future cyberspace governance should be understood and considered today when developing strategic plans and implementing national and international cybersecurity policies.

Preliminary review of cybersecurity coordination in Nigeria

Cyberspace presents significant opportunities that enhance communication, and boost business and socio-economic prosperity in Nigeria. While cyber criminals thrive to exploit any vulnerability for their gains, the Nigeria Government has taken some measures to safeguard its cyberspace. This study evaluates the efforts of the Nigeria Government in the coordination of cybersecurity in the country. It used secondary source methodology by reviewing previous and related research works including books, articles among others. The study found that Nigeria has established a national Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT) and four active Sectoral Computer Security Incident Response Teams (CSIRTs). It also revealed that the Nigeria Government through the Office of the National Security Adviser (ONSA) formulated the National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy (NCPS). It was found that the establishment of the National Cybersecurity Coordination Centre (NCCC) would enhance the implementation of cybersecurity programs in Nigeria. Amongst others, the study recommended that the ONSA should facilitate the approval for the establishment of NCCC.

Cyber Security Threat and Pakistan’s Preparedness: An Analysis of National Cyber Security Policy 2021

The objective of this research is to evaluate Pakistan’s existing national cyber security policy in order to understand its context, effectiveness and readiness to deter cyber security challenges. As the world has become intensively connected and digitized through the internet or information technology, securing cyber space has become the biggest challenge, and has exposed the world to the existence of a novel, global threat. Since the threat to cyber security has no geographical boundaries and is beyond the traditional understanding of security, it is considered to be a paradigm shift in the area of security. The seriousness and enormity attached to cyber threats intrigued us into investigating the status of Pakistan in securing its cyber space and to analyse the National Cyber Security Policy (NCSP) that was developed by the government of Pakistan in 2021 to combat cyber threats from within and outside the country. Cyber security threats and Pakistan’s preparedness for them have also been analyzed in this research. This qualitative study intends to employ a qualitative technique for the collection of data, i.e., policy documentary analysis, to investigate the nature of cyber security policy

An Ontological Model for a National Cyber-attack Response in South Africa

South Africa is increasingly targeted by cyber criminals and is often ranked under the top five countries suffering the most cyber-attacks. In an initiative to counter these attacks, the South African government has initiated various measures such as a National Cybersecurity Policy Framework Policy (NCPF) and a Cybercrimes Act. However, the structures and policies that follow from these measures have not been fully implemented yet. Although the government published the NCPF in 2015 and enacted the Cybercrimes Act in May 2021, there is still a gap in terms of interoperability and shared understanding within the environment. In addition, numerous new structures have been established and others are still being planned. One example of a new structure is the Cybersecurity Hub, the national CSIRT, which is mandated to co-ordinate attack information and provide support for cyber incidents. In addition, the Hub must also implement a national Cybersecurity Awareness program.
 This paper presents a model for the Cybersecurity Hub in the event of a cyber incident in South Africa. The model is based on different attack scenarios and depicts the complex interoperability problem of the various roles, responsibilities, and interactions of role players when there is a cyber incident. One of the scenarios is an attack on critical infrastructure. The model is a prototype of a semantic knowledge base (an ontology) that will help with planning and decision making. Core queries that should be answered concern the critical role players during and after a cyber event; the communication activities that have to take place; and the response actions and the skills required to handle the event.

A Comparative Analysis of Cyber Security Laws and Policies in Nigeria and South Africa

There is free flow of information in the cyberspace and as a result, nations are obviously wary of the integrity of its data as part of both public safety and national security concerns. There are ways that the associated risk could be mitigated and mostly has to do with a proper development and implementation of Cyber security policies and strategies. This research focuses on the cyber security policies, strategies and laws of both Nigeria and South Africa and also making a comparative analysis of the current National Cyber Security Policy and Strategy of both countries and the necessary recommendations going forward. In the case of Nigeria, analytical evidence shows that the national documents were found to have satisfied most of the requirements in terms of content, but failed to address other aspects of cyber security concerns in the country. On the other hand, South Africa as a country is lagging especially in governmental coordination, cybersecurity legislation, engagement with business and citizens, and skilled labour. The paper tends to explore these loopholes evident in the cyber security laws and policies of the aforesaid countries, and made the necessary recommendations on how to adopt best and sustainable practices in dealing with issues related to cyber security breaches including cybercrime in both countries.

Advancing cybersecurity capabilities for South African organisations through R&D

There is a growth of cyber-attacks in South Africa. Seeing that there are over 38 million Internet users in South Africa, this is no surprise. The South African government has published the National Cybersecurity Policy Framework (NCPF) and Protection of Personal Information Act (POPIA) to move towards mitigating cyber threats due to the increase of the presence of South African organisations and citizens in cyber space. This demonstrates that there is a need for organisations to have a clear roadmap to implement and improve on their own cybersecurity capabilities. South African organisations need to take a proactive stance in cybersecurity because businesses rely heavily on technology for day-to-day operations. Currently cyber-attacks cost South African organisations over R2 billion, and the current work-from-home arrangement that most organisations have implemented will only worsen the situation. While a cybersecurity roadmap will differ in every organisation based on the organisation’s vision, goals, and objectives, along with their information technology (IT) and operations technology (OT), a starting point is perhaps the identification of key research and development (R&D) areas together with key activitiesthat organisations can focus on in order to improve their cybersecurity capabilities. Cybersecurity capabilities are tools that organisations use to strengthen their organisation and protect themselves from potential cyber threats. The purpose of this study was to investigate R&D areas that organisations should invest in for the purpose of improving their cybersecurity capabilities. There are various subfields in cybersecurity that can be explored for organisations to advance their cybersecurity capabilities. Five integral R&D dimensions were identified together with key activities and are presented and discussed. A conceptual framework is also presented which maps the R&D dimensions and activities to the main pillars of cybersecurity, i.e., People, Processes, and Technology. South African organisations could reference the framework and adapt it for their business needs to protect themselves against potential cyber threats.

Methodological Problems Concerning Concept’s Formation of the National Cybersecurity in the Russian Federation

The development of information technologies and the widespread digitalisation of many life factors needs an individual’s information security in the digital space. Also, it indicates the need to develop a system of control over this space. This article discusses the main problems concerning the Russian national cybersecurity policy concept. The authors note that two multidirectional trends influence the implementation of the security policy and the protection of information resources and data. First, it is the lack of a clear definition of the Internet space and its boundaries in the legislative framework. Second, the significant interest of the public sector in the independence and security of this space from possible threats and attacks. The formation of the concept of national interest in the field of cybersecurity leads to the solution of several tasks at once, both in the internal domain of digital presence and in the international arena. The authors provide several fundamental terms that will be interesting and necessary for further research in this direction. We have drawn attention to the insufficient terminological elaboration of this topic.

Cybersecurity policy and the Trump administration

ABSTRACT This article evaluates the conditions under which national cybersecurity policy changes or remains stable. Consistent with theories of policy and bureaucratic inertia, particularly punctuated equilibrium theory (PET), it finds that national-level cybersecurity policy during the Trump administration was constrained by existing conceptual, political, and strategic commitments. It uses government and media documentation to observe two pivotal policy periods during the Trump administration. It finds that despite shifting from a nominally defensive to a nominally offensive posture, rather than revise policy categories and priorities, policy makers interpreted cyber threats within existing threat and policy categories. These findings offer two contributions to policy scholarship. First, they begin the process of situating the Trump administration in the larger context of US cybersecurity policy. Second, they demonstrate constraints on senior policy makers as well as the utility of a punctuated equilibrium model. The Trump administration’s “defending forward” concept represented one of the most ambitious efforts to break with existing US cybersecurity policy; however, even this effort was constrained in ways consistent with punctuated equilibrium theory.

Retos y oportunidades en materia de ciberseguridad de América Latina frente al contexto global de ciberamenazas a la seguridad nacional y política exterior

La presente investigación parte de la hipótesis que este estudio establece que la región latinoamericana posee fuertes carencias en el desarrollo de una política nacional de ciberseguridad y en la construcción de capacidades para enfrentar los riesgos y amenazas provenientes del ciberespacio en dimensiones que afectan la seguridad nacional y política exterior. De esta forma, la investigación se compone de seis partes, en la primera se presentan los enfoques teóricos del neorrealismo, constructivismo y teoría de la guerra, que establecen los vínculos entre teorías de las relaciones internacionales, seguridad nacional y ciberseguridad. En el segundo apartado se aborda el proceso de securitización de Internet en la última década del siglo XX y la primera del siglo XXI. En la tercera parte, se presenta el contexto de ciberamenazas a nivel global y su comparativo con la situación de América Latina. Después, se analiza el estado actual de cibercapacidades de la región, con base a mediciones como el Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI) y el National Cyber Security Index (NSCI), con el fin de hacer un ejercicio comparativo entre América Latina y otras regiones del mundo. En la quinta parte se analizan, a nivel individual, los esfuerzos de los países de América Latina en el desarrollo de una política nacional de ciberseguridad y construcción de cibercapacidades con base en los informes sobre la materia de la Organización de los Estados Americanos (OEA) y el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID), así como los indicadores de la metodología del NCSI. Por último, se presentan unas breves conclusiones en el que se exaltan las áreas de oportunidad y mejora para la región latinoamericana en la construcción de una política de ciberseguridad y construcción de cibercapacidades.

Civil Military Cooperation (CIMIC) in Cyber Security Domain: Analyzing Pakistan's Prospects

A clear lack of Civil-Military Cooperation is evident in the field of national cybersecurity policy. For a country such as Pakistan with fractious political, cultural, and diverse ethnic identities and ideological characteristics, an unguarded cyber domain can add to the existing rifts. In light of these challenges, Pakistan needs to create a national cybersecurity policy and strategy incorporating both civil and military concerns. The aim of this research paper is to find out a conceptual framework of Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC) in the realm of cybersecurity. This study has used open-ended semistructured interviews to find out the way forward and the hindrances in civil-military cooperation to create a robust national cybersecurity regime. For an effective national cybersecurity policy, synergy has to be created between the civil and military sectors. The military should not only have the necessary cybersecurity expertise, but it should also organize cyber-drills incorporating all stakeholders.

A study on national cybersecurity policy agenda in Korea using national cyber capability assessment model

A study on national cybersecurity policy agenda in Korea using national cyber capability assessment model

Cybersecurity Policy and the Legislative Context of the Water and Wastewater Sector in South Africa

The water and wastewater sector is an important lifeline upon which other economic sectors depend. Securing the sector’s critical infrastructure is therefore important for any country’s economy. Like many other nations, South Africa has an overarching national cybersecurity strategy aimed at addressing cyber terrorism, cybercriminal activities, cyber vandalism, and cyber sabotage. The aim of this study is to contextualise the water and wastewater sector’s cybersecurity responsibilities within the national cybersecurity legislative and policy environment. This is achieved by conducting a detailed analysis of the international, national and sector cybersecurity stakeholders; legislation and policies; and challenges pertaining to the protection of the water and wastewater sector. The study found some concerning challenges and improvement gaps regarding the complex manner in which the national government is implementing the cybersecurity strategy. The study also found that, along with the National Cybersecurity Policy Framework (the national cybersecurity strategy of South Africa), the Electronic Communications and Transactions Act, Critical Infrastructure Protection Act, and other supporting legislation and policies make provision for the water and wastewater sector’s computer security incidents response team to be established without the need to propose any new laws or amend existing ones. This is conducive for the immediate development of the sector-specific cybersecurity governance framework and resilience strategy to protect the water and wastewater assets.