National Crime Victimization Survey Research Articles

Exploring the Role of Cognitive and Physical Limitations in Explaining Identity Theft Victimization

ABSTRACT We use data from the 2018 Identity Theft Supplement of the U.S. National Crime Victimization Survey to examine the relationship between cognitive or physical limitations and identity theft victimization from a Routine Activities theory perspective. Using the binary logistic regression and multiple imputation technique for handling the missing data, we regressed several outcomes of identity theft victimization on cognitive or physical limitations while controlling for online and offline routines including protective strategies, individual characteristics, and previous victimization. We also tested whether age moderates the relationship between cognitive or physical limitations and victimization outcomes. The results suggest that the relationship between cognitive or physical limitations and victimization is generally significant and positive except for credit card victimization Our findings also revealed that some of these relationships are moderated by age.

Characteristics and Consequences of Violent Victimization in Sexual and Gender Minority Communities: An Analysis of the 2017-2021 National Crime Victimization Survey.

Purpose: This article investigates rates of violent victimization, subsequent help-seeking, and health-related consequences within sexual and gender minority (SGM) communities. Methods: Aggregate data from the 2017-2021 National Crime Victimization Survey were examined to determine nationally representative estimates of rates and distributions of violent victimization, help-seeking, and socioemotional consequences within those 16 years of age and older. Due to sample size, most analyses aggregated sexual orientation and gender identity to allow comparison of SGM persons to non-SGM persons and examine differences within the SGM population. Results: Persons who identified as lesbian, gay, or bisexual experienced violent victimization at rates two to six times higher than straight persons. Transgender persons were victimized more than three times as often than cisgender persons. SGM persons experienced higher rates of all types of violent victimization than non-SGM persons regardless of victim-offender relationship. There were differences by victim demographic characteristics, including sex, race and Hispanic origin, age, marital status, and household income. A higher proportion of SGM victims reported only problems with work/school or problems both at work/school and with family/friends. Finally, higher proportions of SGM victims reported socioemotional consequences when they were female, older, or experienced serious violent crime. Conclusion: The findings in this study continue to highlight high levels of violence experienced by SGM persons and disproportionate socioemotional consequences. There is an evident need to develop targeted interventions and provide services to address the consequences of victimization among this population. The analyses demonstrate the necessity of continued research to better understand the impact of violence on SGM communities.

Hate Speech Against Asian American Youth: Pre-Pandemic Trends and The Role of School Factors.

Although hate speech against Asian American youth has intensified in recent years-fueled, in part, by anti-Asian rhetoric associated with the COVID-19 pandemic-the phenomenon remains largely understudied at scale and in relation to the role of schools prior to the pandemic. This study describes the prevalence of hate speech against Asian American adolescents in the US between 2015 and 2019 and investigates how school-related factors are associated with whether Asian American youth are victims of hate speech at school. Analyses are based on a sample of 938 Asian American adolescents (Mage = 14.8; 48% female) from the three most recently available waves (2015, 2017, and 2019) of the School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey. On average, approximately 7% of Asian Americans were targets of hate speech at school between 2015 and 2019, with rates remaining stable over time. Findings also indicate that students had lower odds of experiencing hate speech if they attended schools with a stronger authoritative school climate, which is characterized by strict, yet fair disciplinary rules coupled with high levels of support from adults. On the other hand, Asian American youth faced higher odds of experiencing hate speech if they were involved in school fights. Authoritative school climate and exposure to fights are malleable and can be shaped directly by broader school climate related policies, programs and interventions. Accordingly, efforts to promote stronger authoritative climates and reduce exposure to physical fights hold considerable potential in protecting Asian American youth from hate speech at school.

Crime Incidents and Victim Demographics: An Examination of Reporting Behaviours

The present study used data from the National Crime Victimization Survey from 1994 to 2020 to examine reporting behaviours of respondents. The study aimed to identify if the presence of a weapon, and an offender being a stranger, impacted whether a victim reports the crime to law enforcement. Demographic variables (e.g., sex, age and income) and crime incident-related variables (e.g., relationship to the offender, distance from home, violent crime and the number of crime incidents) were used to examine the effect on reporting behaviour. Two binary logit models were run and found that the presence of a weapon, the offender being a stranger, victims who are female, a closer distance to the respondent’s home, violent crime and fewer number of crime incidents in the last year were associated with higher odds of reporting. The odds of reporting a crime were over two times larger when the offender had a weapon, providing support for weapons continuing to impact reporting behaviour. An interaction effect was run and suggests that the year of victimization does not impact the relationship between weapons and reporting behaviour.

Male Victims of Sexual Violence and Factors Associated With Reporting to Law Enforcement in the United States

Of the violent crimes, sexual assault remains the least likely to be reported to law enforcement across various countries, particularly for male victims. Addressing this gap in the literature, this study uses National Crime Victimization Survey data from 1992 to 2020 to examine the relationship between victim, offender, and situational characteristics to the reporting of rape for male victims by both male and female offenders. Of the 330 male victims, only one in six (16%) reported it to law enforcement. In the multivariate model, men were less likely to report the incident when the offender was a woman or a juvenile, the victim was college educated and lived in a rural area, and when the incident was a completed rape and occurred at night-time. Older victims are more likely to report, and when a weapon is used or there are injuries. Implications for efforts to increase reporting among victims of male sexual violence are discussed.

Firearms and Extortions in Mexico, 2012 to 2021.

The study of firearm violence in Mexico has primarily focused on homicides and trafficking. Less attention has been given to understanding how firearms affect other crimes and facilitate criminal activity beyond drug markets. By analyzing two questions, this study explores the role of firearms in extortions perpetrated in Mexico from 2012 to 2021. Questions are: What is the likelihood of reporting extortions to the police if offenders exhibited firearms? What is the likelihood of compliance with demands when offenders are armed with firearms? We obtained data from Mexico's National Crime Victimization Surveys and analyzed 2,619 extortions reported from 2012 to 2021. To explore our research questions, we ran two binary logistic regressions. Our dependent variables were dichotomous (reported to police = 1, complied with demands = 1). The independent variables were weapon types (extortions involving firearms as the reference group). We controlled for victim demographics as well as crime characteristics. Our results indicate that 40% of these extortions (n = 1,058) were perpetrated with a firearm. Fifty-two percent of extortions were perpetrated by unarmed offenders (n = 1,348) and 8% (n = 213) were perpetrated with other weapons (no firearms). Models suggest that, when compared to extortions perpetrated by unarmed offenders or those exhibiting other weapons (no firearms), victims of extortions involving firearms are less likely to report these crimes to police, mainly because of fear of reprisal. Similarly, victims are more likely to comply with demands if offenders exhibit firearms. Findings highlight the role of firearms in criminal enterprises and support the need for a comprehensive policy agenda to address firearm violence in Mexico.

Impact of Multiple Minority Statuses: An Examination of Violent Victimization, Police Reporting and Perception of Police Bias

Individuals who identify as belonging to multiple marginalized groups experience disproportionate violent victimization yet are reluctant to inform the police following an incident. Perceptions of the police as biased may influence whether victims report. This study examines low socio-economic and sexual orientation/gender-identity (SOGI) minority statuses on experiencing violent victimization, reporting to the police and perceived police bias as a reason for not reporting. Multivariate logistic regressions were applied to National Crime Victimization Survey data. Low-income, SOGI respondents reported greater odds of experiencing violent victimization but lower odds of reporting to the police. An increase in the odds of perceiving the police as biased was found among victims who did not report. Results suggest greater work to improve the strained relationships between the police and minority communities.

The Focal Concerns of Stalking Victims: Examining Victims’ Decisions to Engage Civil and Criminal Legal Systems

Few studies have explored the focal concerns theory as a framework for understanding crime victims’ decisions to adopt civil/criminal interventions. Using data from the 2019 National Crime Victimization Survey, the current study finds support for the theory, highlighting several factors influencing formal help-seeking decisions aligned with factors legal actors also consider in arrest and charging decisions. Indeed, stalking victims were more likely to apply for protection orders and/or contact the police after experiencing a repeated course of unwanted conduct (e.g., blameworthiness) by intimate partners (e.g., community protection) that caused victims to fear for themselves or others (e.g., community protection) and/or to access victim services (e.g., practical constraints). In addition, most victims believed they were targeted by stalkers who felt entitled, desired power and control, or felt rejected. The findings suggest implications for improving civil and criminal-legal responses to stalking complaints by outlining areas to probe during interviews for further corroboration.

#MeToo and Sexual Violence Reporting in the National Crime Victimization Survey.

The Me Too Movement has reshaped cultural awareness about sexual violence but little is known about how this shift may have coincided with changes in the reporting of sexual violence. The current study is the first to use the National Crime Victimization Survey to compare pre-#MeToo and post-#MeToo reports of sexual violence across three different blocks of time (Time 1: 2014-2015; Time 2: October 2017-September 2019; Time 3: October 2019-September 2021). Comparisons include prevalence rates of overall sexual violence, self-reports of sexual violence, official police reports of sexual violence, and situational characteristics of sexual violence (offender was a stranger, victim injury, victim services used). We also examine gender (women/men) and racial (White women/non-White women) differences in sexual violence reporting. Using formal comparisons, we find a significant increase in the rates of overall sexual violence as well as self-reports and stranger-offender reports of sexual violence between the pre- (Time 1) and the first post-#MeToo time point (Time 2). However, these increases are no longer evident in Time 3. In addition, the changes between the pre- (Time 1) and the first post-#MeToo time point (Time 2) are driven primarily by White women's reporting of sexual violence, and we find no significant changes in the rates of sexual violence experienced by men nor non-White women during these time periods.

Sex and Racial/Ethnic Differences in School Security Measures, Bullying Victimization, and Perceived School Safety: Implications for Pediatric Health Care

Using the 2017 National Crime Victimization Survey dataset, this study examined the association between the types of school security measures and students' bullying victimization and perceived school safety. Using logistic regression and ordinary least square regression analyses, the study addressed whether these associations vary by sex and race/ethnicity, as most research has treated sex and race/ethnicity as covariates. The study found that none of the security measures were associated with bullying victimization among the total sample. However, there were sex and racial differences in the association between security measures and bullying victimization. There were also sex and racial/ethnic variations in the association between security measures and perceived school safety. Scholars, health care practitioners, and policymakers must reflect and reconsider whether increasing school security and control would contribute to the safety and well-being of racial/ethnic minority students in school.

Consequences of Identity Theft Victimization: Disabilities and Mental Distress

This study contributes to the growing literature on consequences of identity theft victimization as well as the broader literature on disabilities and victimization by exploring the connection between mental distress and disability status of an identity theft victim. This study analyzes data from the 2018 iteration of the National Crime Victimization Survey Identity Theft Supplement. Specifically, through logistic regression analysis, this study examines if severe mental distress experienced by identity theft victims varies in relation to their disability status and disability type. Identity theft victims with physical disabilities and multiple forms of disabilities are more likely than individuals with no disabilities to experience severe mental distress after their identity theft victimization. Practice and research implications are discussed.

Nonfinancial Consequences of Identity Theft Revisited: Examining the Association of Out-of-Pocket Losses With Physical or Emotional Distress and Behavioral Health

The study investigates whether nuanced measures of financial loss are associated with physical and/or emotional distress relating to one’s identity theft victimization. A subsample of victims of identity theft from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Identity Theft Supplement ( n = 1,557) was examined. Financial loss was considered as the total amount lost, whether victims suffered any financial losses, and whether losses were in the 95th percentile. Stepwise negative binomial and logistic regressions were estimated for physical and emotional distress and behavioral health outcomes (i.e., both physical and emotional distress). Findings indicate that out-of-pocket losses were substantively associated with physical and emotional distress as well as behavioral health outcomes only when considering nuanced measures of monetary loss. Time taken to resolve identity theft was associated with increased distress across all outcomes. Nonfinancial consequences of identity theft are fundamentally different phenomena than financial loss and indicate the need for multifaceted responses which acknowledge these outcomes.

Racial Inequality in Firearm Homicide Victimization—but not Other Types of US Violence

Research QuestionIs violent crime victimization among US minority groups higher than for White Americans in general, or is there a distinct failure of equal protection by race with respect to firearm homicide?DataThis analysis examines per capita rates of violent victimization for Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites as reported in recent years in the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), as well as the firearms homicide data collected from local and state death certificates by the US Center for Disease Control (CDC).MethodThe analysis compares the extent of disparity between White and minority victimization rates for different kinds of violent crimes. The framework is to calculate the ratio of minority victimization rates to the White rates for the same offense categories.FindingsWhile there are very small differences in victimization rates by race/ethnicity for most types of violent crime, and while Whites report higher victimization rates than minorities do for some kinds of violent crimes, there is a massive ratio for rates of firearms homicides. Black Americans of all ages, for example, suffer firearm homicides at a rate that is 12 times higher per capita than for Whites. Hispanic Americans are twice as likely to be victimized by firearm homicide than Whites.ConclusionsPolicing strategies often fail to distinguish different types of violence, even when discussing racial disparity in policing actions. The evidence of this report provides the most direct support for police increasing the precision of their focus on crime prevention efforts that can reduce homicide as the most important racial disparity in criminal victimization, and, in the US context, firearm homicide in particular.

The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic and the murder of George Floyd on victim and third-party reporting of domestic violence to the police in the US

In our study, we examined the potential short-term and long-term impacts of the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic and the murder of George Floyd on victim and third-party reporting of DV incidents to the police using data from the National Crime Victimization Survey. DV incidents during the pandemic lockdown period between March and May 2020 were positively associated with victim reporting to the police, compared to not reporting. Although, we observed a decrease in victim reporting and third-party reporting of DV incidents in the months following the murder of George Floyd, this decrease was only significant in the fall months of 2020 for third-party reports of DV. DV incidents during the last pandemic period we considered in our study between April 2021 and December 2022 were positively associated with third-party reporting. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings.

State expansion of supplemental nutrition assistance program eligibility and rates of interpersonal violence

IntroductionFood insecurity is associated with an increased likelihood of interpersonal violence. The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) is the largest program addressing food insecurity in the U.S. States can eliminate the asset test and/or increase the income limit for SNAP eligibility, expanding the number of households receiving assistance. We examined the association of state elimination of the asset test and increases in the income limit with rates of interpersonal violence, including intimate partner violence (IPV), other relationship violence (violence by a parent, friend, etc.), and stranger violence. MethodsWe used data from the SNAP Policy Database and state-level estimates of rates of interpersonal violence per 1000 population ages ≥12 years from the 2012–2014 to 2016–2018 National Crime Victimization Survey. ResultsStates that adopted both SNAP eligibility policies (eliminated the asset test and increased the income limit) had a lower rate of IPV (β = −0.4, 95% CI -0.9, 0.0) and other relationship violence (β = −2.4, 95% CI -3.8, −1.1) compared to states that did not adopt either policy. The rate of stranger violence (β = −0.5, 95% CI -2.3, 1.4) did not differ for states that adopted both policies compared to states that did not adopt either policy. Rates of IPV (β = −0.4, 95% CI -0.9, 0.2), other relationship violence (β = −1.2, 95% CI -3.2, 0.7), and stranger violence (β = −0.2, 95% CI -2.0, 1.6) did not differ for states that eliminated the asset test only compared to states that did not adopt either policy. ConclusionExpanding SNAP eligibility may help prevent interpersonal violence at the population-level.

Proposing and testing the pathways from bullying victimization to bringing a weapon to school.

The current study examined whether bullying victimization was associated with bringing a weapon to school, fully or partly mediated by feeling unsafe in school, negative future education orientation, and skipping school. Data from 6199 students (12-18 years old), who had filled out the 2017 School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey, were analyzed. The results showed a positive association between bullying victimization and bringing a weapon to school. The link was both direct and indirect through the mediating roles of feeling unsafe in school, having a negative future education orientation, and skipping school. Thus, victims of bullying tended to feel unsafe in school, have a negative future education orientation, and skip school-all of which were positively associated with bringing a weapon to school.

Buyer Beware, or Buyer Unaware? Examining the Correlates of Consumer Fraud Victimization Acknowledgment in the United States

Victims’ acknowledgment of their experiences as criminal events is a crucial first step to any criminal justice involvement. Works examining the topic have identified several factors associated with acknowledgment, including the seriousness of the offense, repeat victimization, help-seeking behaviors, and distress. Despite this, works examining acknowledgment have been restricted to interpersonal offenses, limiting understandings of whether correlates of acknowledgment can apply in other specific domains, such as for consumer fraud. Using a sample of consumer fraud victims from the National Crime Victimization Survey Supplemental Fraud Survey ( n = 411), findings indicate that distress and help-seeking increased odds of acknowledgment, while repeat victimization was not associated with acknowledgment. Findings are discussed in light of future directions for research and policy.

Does utilization of victim services programs influence individuals’ fear of crime? Findings from the National Crime Victimization Survey

Although there is a robust body of literature addressing fear of crime, leading scholars point to the need to further examine the link between criminal victimization and fear. In the current study, we aimed to examine how certain actions after victimization, primarily use of Victim Services Programs (VSPs), impact components of individuals' general, situational fear. Updating early work by Davis, using 2016–2019 National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), we found that victims who utilized VSPs demonstrate increased odds of components of fear than those who did not use VSPs. Other relevant findings are also discussed.

Urban Victims of Nonlethal Gun Violence: A Chicago-Centered Analysis Using the National Crime Victimization Survey

This study examines city-level rates of nonlethal violence among urban residents, including whether individual- and incident-level characteristics are associated with urban residents’ risk for gun and non-gun serious violence. Specifically, we assess which Chicagoans are most at-risk for nonlethal gun victimization, which are likely to withhold these victimizations from the police, and whether they differ from residents of other large U.S. cities in these rates and reporting behaviors. We analyze pooled 1996 to 2021 National Crime Victimization Survey data and find that Chicagoans have higher risk for nonlethal gun victimization, but similar reporting rates. Overall, urbanites withheld one in three nonlethal gun crimes from police, with an injury during the incident being the most salient factor in whether it was reported.

Variations in Victimization: The Relationship between Community Types, Violence against Women and Reporting Behaviors

Existing research suggests that victimization risk is higher among urban residents. Violence against women is a notable exception in this trend. While the literature does indicate that rural women are at equal risk for violent victimization, it does not differentiate between types of non-urban spaces (exurbs, suburbs, small towns, dispersed rural). We use a five-category measure of rural-urban location articulated land use to disentangle victim–offender relationship distribution using a female victim sample from the 1996–2005 United States National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). In the most rural areas (dispersed rural locations), women are most likely to be victimized by friends or acquaintances. The proportion of women victimized by strangers in dispersed rural locations is very low. As urbanicity increases, so does the proportion of women victimized by strangers. The findings indicate that victim–offender relationships may be dictated by proximity. In dispersed rural locations, there are comparatively fewer people unknown to the victim than in central city locations. Consequently, proximity dictates that offenders in dispersed rural locations are unlikely to be strangers. The articulated land use measure ensures that the differences between types of rural and suburban locations are identified. Future research should consider the impact of proximity on rural victimization and increased specificity in rural measurements.