National Conservation Strategy Research Articles

Two decades of accelerated deforestation in Peruvian forests: a national and regional analysis (2000–2020)

The global tree cover has kept reducing in the last two decades, mainly in tropical forests, despite the global efforts to conserve biodiversity and the ecosystem services that provides. Considering South America is the region that had the highest rate of net forest loss (2000–2020), it is crucial to understand the deforestation dynamics of each country and their regions for the evaluation of effective national conservation actions. Here, we carried out a spatiotemporal analysis of the deforestation rates from 2000 to 2020 on a national and regional scale, including the forest loss inside protected areas, in Peru. It was found that Peru lost 3.4 million ha of forest between 2000 and 2020, mainly in the Not Flooded Rainforest region. National deforestation rates accelerated, while within protected areas rates showed a very small increase. Regional deforestation rates followed the national pattern with one exception—the Coast region. Our results evidence the success of the national conservation strategy based on protected areas to avoid deforestation in all regions, except in the Andean. Moreover, the increment in deforestation rates is aligned with the growth in road infrastructure; increments in anthropic activities; and the more frequent and intense natural extreme events that vary according to the region. Therefore, it is urgent to differentiate the drivers of deforestation that operate at the national versus the regional scale, consider the inclusion of all forest types in the monitoring system, and the strengthening of policies related to land use change at all scales.

Global conservation priorities for wetlands and setting post-2025 targets

Wetland conservation is becoming increasingly important as wetland areas decline globally. However, no comprehensive global-scale mapping of wetland conservation priorities and targets has been published. This information is needed to extend the current protected area network and improve the conservation efficiency for wetlands. Here, we propose a cost-effective assessment model for wetland conservation by integrating wetland conservation value- and human impact-related indicators to identify global wetland conservation priorities. These priorities cover 28% of the potential global wetland distribution, and of that, only 44% is currently protected by existing protected areas. To protect more wetland conservation priorities, we propose three target-setting scenarios for protected area expansion that offer additional contributions of 9.40%, 42.40%, and 55.97%, respectively. These three global targets can be downscaled to the national level and used to update national wetland biodiversity conservation strategies and action plans under a harmonized legal and regulatory regime at different scales and jurisdictions.

Artificial portable plates: A brand new method for assisted colonization of an endangered marine invertebrate, Patella ferruginea

Abstract Limpets play an important role in structuring the intertidal fringe, one of the most heavily impacted marine habitats. A large number of limpet species are listed as Endangered or Vulnerable, including Patella ferruginea, one of the most endangered marine invertebrates in the Mediterranean Sea. Relocation attempts have been made as a conservation tool for reintroductions and population reinforcements for P. ferruginea. Some relocations were mandatory because of port infrastructure repairs in areas where viable populations of this limpet occurred. However, most relocations attempted to date have experienced high mortality rates, leading to the Spanish National Conservation Strategy not recommending this approach for this species. In this study, 84 individuals of P. ferruginea were relocated, using artificial portable plates (APPs) installed on the ripraps of the Port of Ceuta (Western Mediterranean Sea). These plates were divided into two groups and relocated: (i) as a translocation to a nearby site with similar environmental conditions to the donor area (procedural control); and (ii) as a reinforcement translocation to a relatively distant location (30 km, Algeciras Bay) (experimental procedure). The mortality of the translocated individuals in the procedural control after 10 weeks was similar (6.6%) to that expected for natural populations, whereas the mortality rate for individuals in the reinforcement translocation was higher (26.6%). The APPs have been proven to be a feasible method for translocation, as they result in relatively low mortality by preventing the stress and damage caused by limpet detachment from substrata. The constraints caused by reinforcement translocation to a new environment seem to be the cause of the increased mortality, as the translocated limpets changed their home scar at a much higher rate than the control limpets did.

National assessment and variability of blue carbon in seagrass ecosystems in Thailand

Seagrass ecosystems are important organic carbon (Corg) sinks with great potential to contribute to climate change mitigation strategies. However, the high spatial and temporal variability is a barrier to the accurate assessment of national Corg stocks. This study provides a national assessment of Corg within seagrass meadows, including spatial and temporal variations. The highest Corg stocks were within mangrove-associated (44.3 ± 8.27 Mg ha−1), while near-surface sediments were highest in reef-associated meadows (10.20 ± 3.69 Mg ha−1). Regionally, the highest stocks were in the Upper Andaman coast in monospecific meadows (51.7 ± 7.14 Mg ha−1). Corg stocks in near-surface sediments were significantly different across historical trends (p < 0.001), with the highest stocks in stable meadows (9.28 ± 3.39 Mg ha−1). The national Corg stock within seagrass meadows sediment was 40.45 ± 11.59 Mg C ha−1. The results of this study highlighted the complexity of blue carbon in seagrass meadows and the associated impacts on national Corg assessments, carbon accounting, and conservation strategies.

Co-Designing Protected Areas Management with Small Island Developing States’ Local Stakeholders: A Case from Coastal Communities of Cabo Verde

The Small Island Developing State, Cabo Verde, is one of the most important marine biodiverse hotspots in the North Atlantic. One of its national conservation strategies has been the declaration of protected areas, and currently, the country has 47 declared protected areas and only 26 have been fully implemented. The latest protected area, Baía do Inferno e Monte Angra Natural Park, is the first protected area proposed by a civil initiative, and the local people strongly support the declaration of this protected area. Therefore, this study aims to better understand the mechanisms behind strong local support, explore the lessons learned from this case and how it can help improve the implementation of other protected areas in Cabo Verde. We conducted 7 semi-structured interviews with previously identified community leaders and 480 questionnaires with the general population of the local communities. The results show that 78.6% of the questionnaire respondents chose co-management as the desired management model. We also found that non-governmental organizations and local leaders have played a crucial role in sharing knowledge with local populations and helping them to have a critical and informed view about the future implementation of the protected area.

National records of 3000 European bee and hoverfly species: A contribution to pollinator conservation

Abstract Pollinators play a crucial role in ecosystems globally, ensuring the seed production of most flowering plants. They are threatened by global changes and knowledge of their distribution at the national and continental levels is needed to implement efficient conservation actions, but this knowledge is still fragmented and/or difficult to access. As a step forward, we provide an updated list of around 3000 European bee and hoverfly species, reflecting their current distributional status at the national level (in the form of present, absent, regionally extinct, possibly extinct or non‐native). This work was attainable by incorporating both published and unpublished data, as well as knowledge from a large set of taxonomists and ecologists in both groups. After providing the first National species lists for bees and hoverflies for many countries, we examine the current distributional patterns of these species and designate the countries with highest levels of species richness. We also show that many species are recorded in a single European country, highlighting the importance of articulating European and national conservation strategies. Finally, we discuss how the data provided here can be combined with future trait and Red List data to implement research that will further advance pollinator conservation.

Study on the spatial-temporal evolution characteristics, patterns, and driving mechanisms of ecological environment of the Ecological Security Barriers on China's Land Borders

The national ecological security barrier holds a pivotal position within the framework of the national strategy for ecological conservation and restoration. Concurrently, the border areas, as a focal point of the national homeland security strategy, have garnered considerable attention. These two concepts collectively present a profound implication for upholding national security. To this end, monitoring the ecological changes of the ecological security barriers, and exploring the driving mechanisms of such changes constitutes the foremost imperative in comprehending and advancing the national ecological security barrier theory. However, current research has yet to extend the application of ecological security barrier theory to the national scale.This paper integrates the theory of ecological security barrier with China's land border cities belt, constructing the Ecological Security Barrier of China's Land Borders (ESBCLB). Then, this paper produces a Remote Sensing Ecological Index (RSEI) products for the early 21st century (2000–2021, 21 periods) by using Google Earth Engine (GEE). Based on pixel scale calculations and classifications, the spatial-temporal evolution characteristics and patterns of the ESBCLB are objectively obtained. Finally, this paper employs the Geographically and Temporally Weighted Regression (GTWR) model to explore driving mechanisms of six primary indicators, namely, economy, human activity, transportation, topography, hydrography and climate, which may have impacts on the ecological environment of the ESBCLB. Through analysis, this paper concludes that (1) On the whole, the ecological environment changes within the ESBCLB are not substantial, with regions where the ecological environment remains unchanged accounting for 73.78%. Among the regions where ecological changes have occurred, those north of the Aksu Prefecture and Kizilsu Kirgiz Autonomous Prefecture exhibit a predominantly improved trend, while those to the south show a degraded trend. (2) Among ten evolution patterns identified based on the evolution characteristics, the primary evolution patterns for the ESBCLB are pattern of no significant change and persistence as well as pattern of no significant change and counter persistence. Apart from these, pattern of very significant better and persistence and pattern of significant better and persistence dominate the majority of cases; (3) Overall, economy, human activity, transportation, topography, hydrography, and climate exhibit spatial heterogeneity in driving mechanisms of the RSEI. Among them, human activity, topography, hydrography, and climate show positive correlations with the RSEI of the ESBCLB. While economy and transportation show negative correlations. The significance of this paper lies in that it provides a scientific basis and theoretical support for the specific application of national ecological security barrier and the study of the evolution of regional ecological environment.

From rookeries to foraging grounds: understanding regional connectivity and genetic diversity in hawksbill turtles

This study investigated the genetic structure, diversity, and migratory patterns of hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) from two nesting locations in Papua New Guinea (PNG) using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequencing and satellite telemetry. Tissue samples collected from nesting female hawksbill turtles (n=75) in PNG revealed a total of 6 haplotypes from the Conflict Group site and 5 haplotypes from Kavieng site, with the Conflict Group and Kavieng samples significantly differing from one another and all other known Asia-Pacific stocks. This finding expands our understanding of the genetic stock structure of hawksbill turtles in the Asia-Pacific region, resulting in 9 Management Units (MUs) now published. Satellite tracking of 15 hawksbill turtles revealed that all individuals migrated from the Conflict Group westerly towards foraging areas in eastern Australia (93%) and PNG (7%). With a mean migration path distance of 1241 ± 108 km, three distinct migration strategies were used by the 10 hawksbill turtles that made it to their foraging grounds in the I) eastern Torres Strait, II) Far North Queensland, and III) western PNG waters. A broad scope of home-range strategies and sizes (95% UD) were used, and in comparison to other studies further postulates that hawksbills are connected to non-specific foraging grounds associated with food source availability. This study provides for the first time in PNG essential insights into hawksbill turtle population structure and connectivity in the western Pacific region, highlighting the importance of effectively conserving and managing this critically endangered species as distinct population stocks. Furthermore, we make recommendations for national and regional conservation strategies and transboundary management to ensure the long-term survival and recovery of western Pacific’s hawksbill turtle populations.

Promoting private forests for biodiversity conservation and ecosystems restoration in the Sahel region

Private forests have the potential to mitigate biodiversity loss and improve community livelihoods. However, information on the socio-ecological factors that drive their establishment and long-term management are limited. This study aimed to narrow this gap by assessing the potential of privately-owned forests in conserving biodiversity and supporting the livelihoods of communities in northern Burkina Faso. Floristic data were collected within 26 plots (900 m2 each) equally distributed between private Gourga forest, established in 1980) and its adjacent communal areas. Sixty-three (63) private landowners were interviewed in order to underpin their motivations and associated traditional knowledge and a stakeholder’s workshop was conducted to develop conservation models for private forests and participatory implementation roadmap. Findings revealed that species richness was 132 in the Gourga forest and 85 in the communal areas, highlighting the importance of private forest in species conservation. Local communities recognized the provisioning (36.46%), regulating (28.46%) and supporting (22.48%) of ecosystem services provided by the Gourga forest as motivating factors. The main barriers to their establishment and management include lack of financial resources (35%), scarce lands (26%) and human pressures (8%). The implementation of private forests will need to be supported by the enactment of a secure land tenure policy, as well as payment for ecosystem services (PES) policies, incentivizing locals. We suggest decision makers mainstream privately-owned lands into national conservation strategies and design incentives policies to motivate local communities’ engagement.

Four challenges to an effective national nature assessment.

Comprehensive biodiversity assessments play an essential role in strengthening global and national conservation strategies. The recently announced first U.S. National Nature Assessment (NNA) provides an unparalleled opportunity to comprehensively review status and trends of biodiversity at all levels. This broad context can help in the coordination of actions to conserve individual species and ecosystems. The scientific assessments that informed the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework adopted at the 2022 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) conference of parties provide models for synthesizing information on trends at multiple levels of biodiversity, including decline in abundance and distribution of species, loss of populations and genetic diversity, and degradation and loss of ecosystems and their services. The assessments then relate these trends to data on drivers of biodiversity loss and pathways to their mitigation. The U.S. NNA can augment such global analyses and avoid the pitfalls encountered by previous U.S. efforts by ensuring policy-relevant design, data accessibility, and inclusivity in process and product and by incorporating spatial data relevant to national and subnational audiences. Although the United States is not formally a CBD party, an effective NNA should take full advantage of the global context by including indicators adopted at the 2022 meeting and incorporating an independent review mechanism that supports periodic stocktaking and ratcheting up of ambition in response to identified shortfalls in stemming biodiversity loss. The challenges to design of an effective U.S. assessment are relevant globally as nations develop assessments and reporting to support the new global biodiversity framework's targets. By considering and incorporating the diverse ways in which society values and benefits from nature, such assessments can help bridge the gap between research and conservation practice and communicate the extent of the biodiversity crisis to the public, fostering broad-based support for transformative change in humanity's relationship to the natural world.

Problems in Threatened Species Conservation: Differences in National Red Lists Assessments with Global Standards

The solution of transnational environmental problems in the field of the protection of threatened species and conservation biology directly depends on the level of international communication, which can significantly decrease due to differences in Red Lists and Red Data Books of different levels. In order to identify the similarities and differences in approaches to the assessment of national Red Lists and Books of the Baltic Sea region countries (Russia, Denmark, Germany, Lithuania, Finland, Poland and Sweden) with the IUCN Red List, a comparative analysis was carried out. It was determined that the level of discrepancy between Red Data Lists and Books varies considerably, with differences in the scales of species categories, species lists and categories. Most of the threatened species at the national level are not listed under the IUCN Red List, while species in a more stringent category at the national level prevail (37% and 3% on average, respectively). However, national Red Lists and Red Data Books do not take into account the global trend of the risk of extinction of species. The percentage of species with insufficient information to define a category at the national or global level ranges from 6% to 28%. These discrepancies make it difficult to exchange data on threatened species and create a unified database with information on protected species at different levels and, therefore, reduce the effectiveness of biodiversity conservation activities at regional and international levels. The results also demonstrate that countries have an international responsibility to conserve a species, and the cases identified can provide useful additional information to guide a national conservation strategy.

Genetic diversity goals and targets have improved, but remain insufficient for clear implementation of the post-2020 global biodiversity framework

Genetic diversity among and within populations of all species is necessary for people and nature to survive and thrive in a changing world. Over the past three years, commitments for conserving genetic diversity have become more ambitious and specific under the Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) draft post-2020 global biodiversity framework (GBF). This Perspective article comments on how goals and targets of the GBF have evolved, the improvements that are still needed, lessons learned from this process, and connections between goals and targets and the actions and reporting that will be needed to maintain, protect, manage and monitor genetic diversity. It is possible and necessary that the GBF strives to maintain genetic diversity within and among populations of all species, to restore genetic connectivity, and to develop national genetic conservation strategies, and to report on these using proposed, feasible indicators.

Red List of lichenized fungi in Bulgaria

The first Red List assessment of lichenized fungi reported from Bulgaria is presented. The IUCN Red List criteria were applied to 138 species to assess their current extinction risk and to highlight the main threats for them. Our results revealed that six species are Regionally Extinct (RE), 23 species are Critically Endangered (CR), 20 species are Endangered (EN), 13 species are Vulnerable (VU), 11 species are Near Threatened (NT), 58 species are Least Concern (LC), and seven species are Data Deficient (DD). The most important floristic regions for lichen conservation are the Pirin Mts (26 species), the Balkan Range (25), the Rila Mts (25), the Rhodopes (20), Mt. Vitosha (16), Mt. Strandzha (16), and the Black Sea coast (15). The main threats are development of tourism and recreation activities that destroy habitats (60 species affected), air pollution (55), climate change (53), development of tourism and recreation areas (41), harvesting trees and other woody vegetation (unintentional effects) (27), ecosystem modifications that convert or degrade habitats (18), and development of housing and urban areas (14). The information provided in this Red List will assist to further develop the national conservation strategy for Bulgaria.

Indigenous protected and conserved areas (IPCAs): Canada's new path forward for biological and cultural conservation and Indigenous well-being

Wilderness and national parks play a fundamental role in defining Canadian identity, yet Indigenous Peoples have historically been excluded from conservation decisions, resulting in systematic dispossession and oppression. In this article, we collaborate with Dene Tha'First Nation to discuss the recent paradigm shift towards Indigenous-led conservation and propose guiding principles to advance and assert the critical role of Indigenous Peoples in conservation. We begin with a brief history of Indigenous Peoples in conservation, followed by the concept of Indigenous protected and conserved areas (IPCAs). Our analyses show that IPCAs have gained momentum recently, driven by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Canada's commitment to global conservation goals. With one of the largest landmasses and Indigenous populations in the world, IPCAs in Canada have the potential to make immense contributions to environmental and cultural conservation rooted in an intrinsic relationship to the land. Despite this biocultural diversity, as of 2022, less than 1% of Canada's landmass is declared as Indigenous-led protected areas. However, more than 50 Indigenous communities across the country have currently received funding to establish IPCAs or to undertake early planning and engagement that could position Canada as a global leader in Indigenous-led conservation. As the Government of Canada aims to designate 25% of the territory as protected space by 2025 and 30% by 2030, embedding Indigenous rights, knowledge, and values in the national conservation strategy will be essential to simultaneously honoring the commitments to reconciliation and meeting the ambitious targets stipulated in the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.

A comprehensive threat analysis to support the red list of marine and coastal ecosystems of Colombia

IntroductionHuman activities represent a growing threat to biodiversity, increasing species extinction and leading ecosystems to collapse. The knowledge of the spatial distribution of threats to ecosystems is fundamental to understanding their risk of collapse as defined by the Red List of Ecosystems, an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) global standard to guide conservation and management actions. Colombia is a megadiverse country; almost half of its territory is marine, and its ecosystems are subject to anthropogenic and climatic threats.MethodologyThis study provides a quantitative map assessment for a set of relevant anthropic and climatic threats and impacts on the marine and coastal areas of Colombia, intending to perform the threat description component of the Red List assessment protocol. A cumulative impact assessment was applied to analyze the threat levels (TLs) and impact levels of 12 anthropogenic and climatic pressures.ResultsThe observed TL patterns meet spatial expectations, revealing that the assessment units in the Caribbean Sea are more threatened than those in the Pacific Ocean, and continental areas are more threatened than the oceanic ones. Habitat transformation and sea warming were the threats with the most impact on coastal and marine ecosystems, respectively. Climatic threats were widely extended throughout the study area, occurring even in the most pristine zones (e.g., Malpelo Island).DiscussionClimate threats are challenging to national conservation strategies since these pressures are not completely manageable at local scales as they depend mainly on global efforts. Recommendations drawn from this work can guide actions for the conservation of the ecosystems of Colombia.

Influence of the water tank size and air source heat pump size on the energy saving potential of the energy storage heating system

“Clean heating” has become a national strategy for energy conservation and carbon reduction in China. The energy storage heating system with air source heat pump and water tank has been proven to be energy saving in the previous studies. However, how to determine the sizes of the water storage tank and the air source heat pump based on the building heating load profile has not been investigated comprehensively. In this paper, the model of the energy storage heating system is established on the TRNSYS platform and validated by long-term monitored data. The influence of the water storage tank size and the air source heat pump size on the energy saving potential of the energy storage heating system is investigated comprehensively. The results show that even a small water tank, i.e., 0.06 m3 ~ 0.5 m3, can reduce the start-stop loss of the air source heat pump effectively. When the water tank volume increases to 0.5 m3 and 1 m3, the start-stop loss is reduced from 12.5 % to 0.8 % and 0.2 %, respectively. When the water tank volume increases from 1 m3 to 4m3, the average operating temperature difference of the air source heat pump between the energy storage heating system and the baseline heating system increases from 0.7 to 3.3 °C, and the corresponding energy saving rates caused by the operating temperature difference is approximately 1.0 % ~ 6.3 %. When the ASHP size varies from 80 % to 100 % of the design heating load of the building, the energy saving rates change within 1 %. The ASHP size can be reduced to a certain extent to reduce the investment of the energy storage heating system.

Current status and future challenges for khulan (Equus hemionus) conservation in China

Understanding the changes in population size, distribution and threats, is essential for assessing the status of threatened species. Northern China is believed to be an important stronghold for the Near Threatened Asiatic wild ass or khulan ( Equus hemionus ), but a recent assessment of the species has been lacking. To document change and updated the current status of khulan in China, we conducted a literature review targeting peer-reviewed and grey literature, newspaper articles, and summarized the results own field surveys and interviews from part of the species range. For a better understanding of the threats to khulan in China, we summarized the results of studies on environmental habitat factors and human disturbances for khulan, most of which are only available in Chinese language. Our results suggest that khulan in China have experienced a dramatic decline and fragmentation of their distribution range caused by excessive anthropogenic interferences. The remaining khulan range in China covers probably less than 40,000 km 2 and is scattered over several nature reserves and the border areas in northern Xinjiang, northwestern Gansu, and western Inner Mongolia. We estimate the remaining population at about 4000 individuals, with ~80% found in Kalamaili Mountain Ungulate National Nature Reserve in Xinjiang. The occurrences along the border with Mongolia are small and dependent on cross-border movements, which are currently severely hindered by border fences. Over the past 15 years, Kalamaili Mountain Ungulate National Nature Reserve was exposed to various human pressures and experienced dramatic population fluctuation in the khulan population size. Key factors which negatively influenced khulan were habitat loss, fragmentation, and disturbance due to mining exploration and infrastructure development. No systematic monitoring of khulan is done in the rest of the khulan range, but whereas illegal hunting seems no longer a serious threat, infrastructure development and land use changes (including increasing livestock numbers) are happening throughout the remaining range of khulan in China. Hence there is an urgent need to develop a national khulan conservation strategy and initiate cross-border cooperation with Mongolia to safeguard the long-term survival of the species in the Gobi region.

Local ecological knowledge from Andros Island, The Bahamas, reveals new insights on the distribution and use of the Critically Endangered smalltooth sawfish, Pristis pectinata

Abstract The Bahamas is among the last remaining refuges for the Critically Endangered smalltooth sawfish, Pristis pectinata, and the presence of a distinct ‘beacon of hope’ population on Andros Island may prove critical to their recovery. Although legislation in The Bahamas protects sharks from exploitation, no such national protection exists for rays, which include sawfishes. Targeted efforts to protect essential habitats coupled with community‐led conservation actions provide a path forward for sawfish conservation and recovery. Structured interviews were conducted in 2021 (n = 77) with community members that frequent Andros waters to describe the temporal and spatial patterns of sawfish distribution in Andros, and to identify key regions or habitats for sawfish‐specific monitoring and potential protection. Sawfish encounters (n = 99) included all life stages and were located throughout coastal and tidal waters of Andros. Comparable numbers of animals were encountered along both coastlines, predominantly on shallow (&lt;2 m), muddy flats close to shore (&lt;1 km). Most notable were encounters with young‐of‐the‐year sawfishes in new regions of Andros, indicating the potential discovery of undocumented nursery habitats. Although most encounters were sightings, 22% (n = 20) of the sawfishes were caught, with just under half of these harvested for food, bait, and/or to keep the rostrum as a decorative item. There is an urgent need for more expansive protection and monitoring of smalltooth sawfishes across their range in Andros and improved education and outreach to prevent further harvest. Recommendations include: (i) the formal development of a national strategy for sawfish conservation; (ii) adding sawfish to the existing shark sanctuary to provide national protective measures; and (iii) community‐led outreach and education activities to develop and lead conservation initiatives, including ecotourism and wildlife guiding and a Bahamian sawfish reporting network.

Countrywide classification of permanent grassland habitats at high spatial resolution

AbstractEuropean grasslands face strong declines in extent and quality. Many grassland types are priority habitats for national and European conservation strategies. Countrywide, high spatial resolution maps of their distribution are often lacking. Here, we modelled the spatial distribution of 20 permanent grassland habitats at the level of phytosociological alliances across Switzerland at 10x10 m resolution. First, we applied ensemble models to provide distribution maps of the individual habitat types, using training data from various sources. Copernicus Sentinel satellite imagery and variables describing climate, soil and topography were used as predictors. The performance of these models was assessed based on the true skill statistics with a split‐sampling of the data. Second, the individual maps were combined into countrywide maps of the most and second most likely habitat type, respectively, using an expert‐based weighting approach. The performance of the combined map for the most likely habitat type was assessed via an independent testing dataset and a comparison of the predicted habitat‐type proportions with extrapolations from field surveys. Most individual maps had useful to excellent predictive performance (TSS ≥ 0.6). For most grid cells in the combined maps, the most and second most likely habitat types were either ecologically closely related or representing two grassland types along a nutrient gradient. The same was true for omission errors. We found good agreement between the predicted and estimated proportions from field surveys. The area of raised bogs appears to be underestimated, while dry grasslands showed highest agreement. This work highlights the potential of earth observation data at fine spatial and temporal resolution to map habitats at broad scales, thereby providing the foundation for diverse conservation applications. A particular challenge remains in capturing the transition from nutrient‐poor to nutrient‐rich grasslands, which is highly important for biodiversity conservation.

From Shells in House Cabinets to Structured Data for Research: The mobilization of frozen biodiversity data in Italy

In recent decades, technological development has accelerated exponentially, and with it the volume of data that can be accumulated and processed (Runting et al. 2020). The big data revolution has enabled great steps forward in natural sciences, allowing the study of global changes at different scales (Nelson and Ellis 2018). Today, biodiversity research has focused more on data quantity than quality, leading to a shift in the collecting methods of primary biodiversity data from specimen-based to observation-based. Some authors argued that the increasing disconnection of occurrence data from actual specimens has some aspects of suboptimality that cannot be ignored, despite also having many benefits (Troudet et al. 2018). In this context, Natural History Collections (NHCs) contain data of potential high quality when specimens are collected and identified by experts; however, most NHCs' data are not databased, records must be digitized to become usable by researchers and other stakeholders, and not all owners have the tools to do so (Fig. 1). In Italy—as in other countries—many specimens of invertebrates are stored in private collections, the majority not databased, and even when they are digitized, they rarely follow international standards, such as Darwin Core - DwC (Darwin Core Task Group 2009). We call this type of data frozen. The production of an accessible nationwide database derived from the digitization of these records could significantly support research and national conservation strategies. This project aims to support the databasing of private collections in Italy and collect their records in one structured geo- and chrono-referenced database of biodiversity data in line with international standards. We have chosen marine molluscs as a pilot taxon, based on three criteria: 1) existence of an updated checklist of the Italian fauna (Renda et al. 2022); 2) existence of an updated taxonomic reference to serve as a thesaurus for the database, namely MolluscaBase (MolluscaBase eds. 2022) and the World Register of Marine Species - WoRMS (WoRMS Editorial Board 2022); 3) management and conservation relevance of the taxon, based on classic criteria for selecting indicator taxa (e.g., Pearson 1994). For data collection, we built an empty template Excel spreadsheet, for ease of use by the terminal operator. The template file contains 21 fields, summarized in Fig. 2, and it is accompanied by other support files (Fig. 3). As of 01 Jul 2022, we had contacted only a small number of specialists, collecting &amp;gt;9500 records. While data are collected from different collections, records will be reorganized into a single database according to the DwC standard. Each record will then be georeferenced following Zermoglio et al. (2020)’s protocol and it will be traceable through a system of Persistent Identifiers. By this project, we aim to foster the mobilization of frozen biodiversity data through a process of digitization and integration of different sources. We expect to produce a database containing a large number of records in a few years, making it available for research and biodiversity management.