National Archaeological Museum Research Articles

Technical examination, elemental analysis and conservation of the arm of a colossal bronze statue from Aegion at the conservation laboratories of the National Archaeological Museum at Athens

The bronze arm, belonging to a colossal statue (presented by A. G. Vordos in this volume), was examined at the Chemical-Physical Research & Archaeometry Laboratory of the National Archaeological Museum (NAM) in Athens. According to prevailing methodology the examination comprised: macroscopic, microscopic and endoscopic examination, elemental analysis p-XRF, X-ray radiography, recording of ancient repairs. It is assumed that the arm was manufactured by the indirect lost wax casting technique and was found to contain an enormous amount of lead (av. 40.15 %), a fact that dates it to the late Hellenistic or Roman period. The arm was consequently conserved at the Metal Conservation Laboratory of the NAM and it has now been returned to the Ephorate of Antiquities of Achaia in Patras

The arm of a large-scale bronze statue from Aigion, Achaea, Greece

The arm of the large-scale bronze statue presented in the current research was handed over in 1951 to the Ephorate of Antiquities in Aigio of Achaia and constitutes a typical yet exquisite example of Peloponnesian oversized statuary in bronze. The area where the arm was found coincides with the location of the ancient agora, as well as, according to previous excavation works, the place where the temenos of Zeus Soter, patron deity of the ancient polis of Aigion, is located. Based on the surviving fragment/limb, several issues regarding statue typology are further discussed, while its posture is suggested as ‘standing in grandeur’. The identification of a divine figure, probably that of Zeus, is supported by the location of discovery and the object it was supposedly holding, combined with the numismatic issues of Aigion depicting the same type of statuary of the supreme god. The dating of the statue in mid Hellenistic years onwards agrees with the scientific analysis of the alloy, carried out in the laboratories of the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.

Some Italic Heracles from the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid

The paper presents an archaeometallurgical analysis made on a group of Italic bronze figures from the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid (MAN-Madrid) whose common theme is that they all represent Heracles in different attitudes.

Metal Fragments of Roman Pipes from Pompeii: Investigations on Copper-Based Alloys, Corrosion Products, and Surface Treatments

This work reports the study of metal fragments from Roman pipes excavated from the archaeological site of Pompeii and currently preserved in the deposits of the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (MANN). The Roman pipe, called the tibia, is a reed wind musical instrument similar to the Greek aulos. It can be made of wood, bone, and/or metal. Materials consisting of metal Cu-based alloys were excavated from archaeological burial environments. This research aims to identify the composition of the alloys, characterize the corrosion patinas, and identify any ancient surface treatments on the fragments. Non-invasive and micro-invasive techniques were used to achieve this aim, i.e., optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectrophotometry, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectrometry. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the materials and manufacturing techniques used for these instruments, as well as the degradation processes occurring over the centuries.

SEA BROUGHT ONTO LAND: SEASCAPE IMAGERY IN THE CYCLADIC POTTERY FROM PHYLAKOPI (MELOS) IN THE NATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM, ATHENS

This study examines seascape depictions on pottery, including seafaring and sea creature scenes, from the 1896–9 excavations at Phylakopi on Melos, held in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens. This analysis demonstrates that seascape scenes varied in character through time and were typically associated with vessel shapes connected to the pouring of liquids between Early Cycladic (EC) III and Middle Cycladic late and were later focused on basins. A focus on seafaring is evident in EC III, while later the iconographic focus on the sea concentrates on sea creatures. An iconographic interest in the sea, alongside that of birds and floral depictions, is suggestive of an interest in living forms that inhabit different places to humans (i.e., non-domestic) with different corporeality to humans. This research contributes further to the growing debate on human–animal/plant relationships and ontologies in the Aegean Bronze Age.

Update and synthesis of the available archaeological and geochronological data for the Lower Paleolithic site of Loreto at Venosa (Basilicata, Italy)

Abstract In the Basilicata region, located in southern Italy and known for hosting among the first occurrences of the Acheulean culture in southwestern Europe, the Lower Paleolithic site of Loreto at Venosa is located less than a kilometer from the emblematic site of Notarchirico and less than 25 km from Cimitero di Atella. The Loreto site has not been studied as thoroughly as the two other sites and, although geological investigations have been carried out in the Venosa basin, no direct numerical dating has ever been published for the three archaeological levels brought to light during the excavation campaigns. We present a multi-method geochronological approach combining ESR/U-series, ESR, and 40Ar/39Ar permitting to refine the age of the most ancient archaeological level (A) of the Loreto site. These data allow us to propose an MIS 13 age for this level, in accordance with previous hypotheses based on geological and paleontological data. We also propose a technical review of the lithic tools preserved in the collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Venosa to integrate Loreto in the evolution scheme of the European Acheulean techno-complex emergence and diffusion.

The stone artifacts of the National Archaeological Museum of Adria (Rovigo, Italy): a noteworthy example of heterogeneity

This paper reports on the results of the analyses of 56 stone samples from Roman and pre-Roman artifacts from the ancient town of Atria, currently preserved at the National Archaeological Museum of Adria. The city is located in the eastern Veneto lowlands, close to the Po River delta, and far from the main rock outcrops of the region. The objective of this research is to determine the provenance of the stones used in ancient Atria and their trade networks. The analytical techniques adopted include polarized-light optical microscopy (PLM), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and quantitative phase analysis by X-ray powder diffraction (QPA-XRPD). The results reveal a widespread use of imported stones from the central-western territories of Veneto, primarily comprising trachyte from the Euganean Hills and the soft limestone Vicenza Stone from the Berici Hills/eastern Lessini Mounts. Rosso Ammonitico, Maiolica (Biancone) and Scaglia Rossa limestones are also documented. From neighbouring regions, the imported stone types include Aurisina limestone from the Trieste Karst and Istrian Stone. Sandstone was uniquely recognized in G. Popillius’s milestone. Moreover, advanced geochemical and mineralogical analyses performed on the Euganean trachytes allow tracking accurately the quarry sites, revealing an extensive exploitation of the main historical quarries of M. Oliveto, Monselice and M. Merlo, although some provenances from outcrops less systematically exploited were also detected. Notably, the use of rhyolite for manufacturing a pre-Roman gravestone provides new insights regarding the exploitation of Euganean stone resources before the Roman era.

A Multianalytical Approach to Identifying the White Marbles Used in Roman Imperial Sculptures from Tarraco (Hispania)

A selection of the most outstanding white marble sculptures from Tarraco has been archaeometrically studied to know more about the marble sources and their respective artistic workshops. All are imperial portraits of the 2nd century AD (Trajan, Hadrian, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius) and a thoracata bust assigned to Hadrian, found on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Tarragona (MNAT). The well-established multimethod approach, combining petrography, cathodoluminescence, C and O isotopes and Sr and Mn trace element composition, has revealed the use of different very fine- to fine-grained marbles of the highest quality exploited in classical times. In contrast to what was thought until now, in which all the pieces had been assigned to Luni-Carrara, this present study identifies the use of two varieties of the recently discovered site of Göktepe near Aphrodisias and Paros-lychnites marbles, being Carrara, in minority. This study confirms the importance of strontium concentration and the contribution of cathodoluminescence to distinguish Göktepe from Carrara marble, while carbon and oxygen isotopes were crucial for the identification of Cycladic marble. Finally, in line with recent published interdisciplinary studies, the marble provenance forces us to rethink the discourse on the use of marble, its sculptural workshops and its distribution in this temporal context.

Digital microclimate simulation models to support innovative management and preventive conservation processes in cultural sites

Among the least investigated aspects in historical architecture, one is the microclimatic behaviour linked to the preventive conservation of cultural heritage. This aspect should be studied intensively since it is closely related to any deterioration phenomenon of materials and can have a crucial role in updating management systems of cultural sites. Today the sensors that monitor environmental parameters can transfer data in real time into a continuous monitoring logic (cloud platforms) and this, in addition to the development of software capable of modelling the thermo-hygrometric behaviour of buildings, opens up new lines of research. The authors believe that it represents one of the most promising areas of investigation and capable of offering greater results in terms of preventive and planned measures. This contribution collects an experience recently conducted, financed by the Ministry of University and Research, in one of the most prestigious Italian museums, the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (MANN). The monitoring and modelling methodologies are illustrated, as well as the objectives of the intervention, with a view to a fruition that holds the psycho-physical well-being of staff and visitors and the conservation of heritage as close as possible. The results are closely linked to the pandemic experience, with the secondary objective of risk prevention for people and cultural heritage.

Il Museo della Magna Grecia. Dal progetto di Piacentini ai primi allestimenti del Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Reggio Calabria

The paper retraces the history of the exhibition designs of the National Archaeological Museum of Reggio Calabria (Italy), investigating the museographic and museological instances that inspired them, with a glimpse of the cultural context in which they flourished. The investigation period spans from the 1930s, when the architect Marcello Piacentini developed the original planning ideas for the building and the interior of the “first museum in Italy built for this purpose”, to the first exhibition presented to the public at the opening in 1958. The paper concludes with an analysis of the expansion of the museum sections in the 1960s with new criteria. Thanks to hitherto unpublished documents, the history of the museum and its protagonists has been reconstructed, revealing a spirit of collaboration between architects and archaeologists which provides an example of good museum practice and laid the basis for the subsequent development of this important institution in Southern Italy.

Ancient Repairs on the Alexander Mosaic from Pompeii

Every so often throughout antiquity, cities, structures and objects were damaged to varying degrees as a result of wars, earthquakes, floods and fires, and became unusable. However, similar to the present day, in some cases it was possible to maintain their function by carrying out repairs. Traces of such repairs are visible on mosaic flooring, one of the structural elements most affected by these destructions.
 Since mosaics are composed of lots of small pieces, they can quickly disintegrate in any destructive situation and fall apart easily. Through the ages, the loss of components occurred as a result of not only great destruction and devastation, but also of wear due to overuse. In such cases, in order to reduce the growth of the damaged area, various repair techniques were used, and the use of the structures/spaces continued. The craftsmen doing these repairs sometimes tried to restore the floor and its decoration elements to its original appearance, and other times utilised different materials in order to re-open the space as quickly as possible. The location and dimension of the damage as well as the repair methods on the mosaic provide us with information on the techniques of the craftsmen and the practices of the period.
 Found at the Casa del Fauno (VI 12, 2) in Pompeii on October 24, 1831 and dated to the end of the 2nd century BC (120 BC) (Pappalardo - Ciardiello 2010: 153) the Alexander Mosaic is one of the most well-known mosaics today, as well as being famous enough in the period it was made to be mentioned in historical and literary sources. The original is preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum (MANN, inventory number 10020). It depicts the battle of Issus (333 BC) or Gaugamela (331 BC) between Alexander the Great and Darius III (Pappalardo - Ciardiello 2010: 154; Giulierini et al. 2020: 105). Despite having undergone repairs following the extensive damage it sustained in the earthquake of 62 AD, the mosaic never regained its former appearance. It is a rare example, as it was in some parts repaired with tesserae and some other parts repaired using mortar. Studies of the Alexander Mosaic suggest that these two different mending techniques belong to separate attempts from different periods. This article, as a result of detailed examinations, discusses the possibility that repairs made with both tesserae and mortar may have been applied simultaneously after the same destruction.

Vulnerability Assessment of Art Collections: The National Archaeological Museum “Gaio Cilnio Mecenate” in Arezzo (Italy)

Artworks play a fundamental role in the cultural and economic assets of communities, enhancing their identity and helping with social integration. Despite their importance, they are not always adequately protected against degradation, which can be induced by aging, atmospheric and human-induced occurrences, and catastrophic events. Earthquakes certainly represent one of the main risks for art objects; however, traffic, construction works, and shipment can also represent a threat to art goods. Therefore, the assessment of the vulnerability of art collections to dynamic excitations plays a crucial role in their conservation, and it has been collecting increasing attention from researchers, academics, and museum managers. This work focuses on the vulnerability of the art collections exhibited at the “Gaio Cilnio Mecenate” museum in Arezzo. Namely, it aims to assess the effective dynamic loading experienced by the artworks, which is a function of the dynamic propagation played by the foundation soil, the building, and the displayers used for the exhibition. In this study, the dynamic properties of some of the displayers used for exhibiting the art collections are investigated by performing an experimental survey. The analysis of the experimental data led to the assessment of the proper frequencies of the displayers, which were compared to those of the building and the foundation soil of the museum.

Experimentation of a PVA-Borax hydrogel for the removal of Paraloid B72® from artifacts of archaeological interest from the National Archaeological Museum in Naples, Italy

This paper shows the results of an experimentation aimed at the removal of a polymeric film of aged Paraloid B72® originally placed to protect some wooden artifacts belonging to the Egyptian collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (MANN). The study was conducted on two shabtis dated to the 19th Dynasty and a sculpture of Ptah-Sokar-Osiris dating to the late period. Thanks to the collaboration between the National Archaeological Museum of Naples and the Laboratory of Restoration of Wooden Artifacts of the University of Naples Suor Orsola Benincasa, it was possible to conduct an in-depth study of the artifacts, from both an archaeological-historical point of view and from a conservation point of view. This led to the development of the above-mentioned experimentation and to the planning of a proper restoration intervention. The study and experimentation were supported by several diagnostic techniques. In a first stage, non-invasive investigations were carried out to study the execution technique and the state of conservation of the artifacts. This allowed the recognition of the wood species that constituted the three sculptures through optical microscopy, whereas IR reflectography, UV induced fluorescence and X-ray radiation (XRF) were conducted to identify the type and the chemical nature of the pigments. Based on the above analysis, different restoration strategies, based on the removal of Paraloid B72® through a methodology that would act in full respect of the wooden support of the artifacts, were considered. Pros and cons of the different methodologies applied in the recent past for the removal of aged Paraloid from artifact surfaces were analysed. A removal technique based on the use PVA-Borax hydrogel loaded with a solvent mixture was selected. Experiments were conducted to validate the effectiveness of the selected method.

Officina di IG XIV2 – A Lead Stamped Medicine Jar from Taranto

The contribution offers the first edition of a small lead olla preserved in the storerooms of the National Archaeological Museum of Taranto, made from a bivalve matrix and intended for the trade of medicinal ointments or eye drops. The discreetly preserved object bears a matrix inscription consisting of an idionym in genitive case: Παμφίλου, from Pamphilos, identifying the φαρμακοπώλης according to whose recipe the medicamentum was made. The name is massively attested in Attica and the object therefore seems referable, in terms of form and material of manufacture, to the ‘Athenian or Central-Mediterranean’ area.

RESEARCH ON THE DIGITAL EXHIBITION OF CULTURAL RELICS FOR CROSS-CULTURE COMMUNICATION: CASE STUDY ON CHINA-GREECE COOPERATION ON TERRACOTTA WARRIORS

Abstract. With epidemics blocking offline interactions, it is difficult to organise events such as tours of major heritage sites and outbound exhibitions of cultural relics, and new paths need to be expanded for the presentation of cultural heritage and intercultural education efforts. With the booming development of digital technology, the integration of online virtual presentation and interactive technology and the innovative design of 3D scenes provide new solutions for the intercultural communication of these precious and immovable cultural relics (e.g. archaeological sites), etc. This project is based on the Sino-Greek cooperation around the online presentation of heritage items such as the Terracotta Warriors and Horses of China and the precious collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Greece, in order to present and On the basis of communicating the value of heritage and the connection between Chinese and Greek civilisations, the project explores the development of a virtual space that integrates the Terracotta Warriors and Horses pits, the interactive virtual display of cultural relics, and the display of the achievements of scientific and technological conservation of cultural relics, so as to realise the cross-cultural exchange between China and Greece and fulfil the educational function of heritage.

Vestimenta drawing in use by the Romans

The study of the Pompeii clothes, representative of the wider Roman culture, is carried out starting from the graphic analysis of the classical iconography of the MANN (National Archaeological Museum of Naples) in comparison with historiographical sources, by means of the representation of the main patterns of women's clothing in use by the Romans and their respective decorative and chromatic motifs, also in relation to the fibres of which the fabrics were made. This study, which also makes use of data obtained from the photogrammetric survey of a selected number of textile finds belonging to the "MANN Textile Collection", provides an unpublished archive of the main clothing patterns, codifying in technical drawings (paper patterns) the unconventional rules that the ancient Romans at that period used to make clothing on the basis of knowledge, practical experience and customs (dressing rituals) specific to the culture of the time. The flat development of each clothing patterns is entrusted to the geometric accuracy of the paper pattern, is proportionate to the anthropometric measurements of the woman of the Roman age (female normotype) and represented to scale.

Openness, Innovation, and Sustainability in Museum Organizations

Over the last few decades, social, economic, and technological changes have gradually contributed to modifying the core concept of museum organizations, towards their active involvement in the process of social innovation and territory growth, in accordance with the instances of sustainability. This study investigates how strategic innovation, based on the implementation of an open and sustainable museum model, as a driver of social and civic innovation, can enhance the development of the reference community. To this end, after analyzing the concept of sustainability-oriented innovation in the perspective of openness and shared value, the research investigates the role of sustainability and its specific declinations in museum management, focusing the attention on the experience of the Italian museums in the light of a substantial revision of organization due to a reform in 2014. The theoretical framework is then applied to a case study, the National Archaeological Museum of Taranto “MArTA”, in order to verify the nature and impacts of changes in the museums that take a sustainability-oriented path through strategic and technological innovation. The study provides evidence of the joint and interdependent role of openness, innovation, and sustainability as key drivers in the museums with particular reference to practices adopted to encourage stakeholders’ engagement and to contribute to social, economic, and cultural development.

Aphidna’s Prehistoric Tumulus in North Attica from around 2000 BC. A Comprehensive Re-assessment of Sam Wide’s 1894 Excavation

Abstract The 13 graves excavated in 1894 by Sam Wide at Aphidna only attracted sporadic attention during the first decades, even though he exposed unusually rich burials. However, over the last 20 years, there has been increased interest, but still with most focus on only one grave, Pithos Grave III. This article combines information from several sources to get a more comprehensive picture, including a thorough re-read of Wide’s original publication in German, an examination of his preserved correspondence and notes, also with a newly discovered original photo taken during the excavation. In addition, recent colour photos of the finds kept in the National Archaeological Museum in Athens are provided. This approach may, in a sense, be termed ‘archaeology in reverse’. Wide was a pioneer in Greek prehistoric studies and the first to identify a then-unknown phase between the Early and the Middle Bronze Age, based on the Aphidna finds. His detailed descriptions of the excavation, including the large bowls placed outside the pithos graves, also contribute to reconstructing burial rites. After 130 years, with many new contemporary sites now available, new insights into regional perspectives can be gained.

Color and Light: A Hellenistic Terracotta Figurine of a Maenad from Myrina

During the Hellenistic period and under the growing influence of the art of painting, the polychromy of Greek terracotta figurines focused not only on an elaborate rendering of color, but also on the interplay of light and shadow. Some of the best-preserved examples clearly show the subtlety of such pictorial effects. Among them is a statuette of a standing Maenad, held in the collections of the National Archaeological Museum in Athens (inv. 5000). Dating back to 150–100 BCE, it is a high-quality testament to the sculptural, as well as pictorial, coroplastic production in the workshops of Myrina (Eolide, Turkey). Combining multi-scale examination, multi-spectral imaging and non-invasive spectroscopic investigations (XRF, FTIR, FORS), a scientific study of the artefact was carried out within the framework of the Pilina project, a collaborative research program between the Louvre, the C2RMF, the National Archaeological Museum and the French School in Athens. This article presents the main results of the study by discussing the color scheme, identification of some pigments and colorants (clays of the kaolinite group, ochres, cinnabar, Egyptian blue, an anthraquinone of plant origin, likely madder, gold leaf), and painting techniques aiming at achieving chiaroscuro effects.

Development of an Immersive VR Experience Using Integrated Survey Technologies and Hybrid Scenarios

The paper was aimed to promoting and improving the knowledge of the Naples city’s monuments through an immersive visit experience, according to the paradigms of new digital languages. Thanks to the use of integrated technologies, some monuments of the city are presented in virtual way, with unusual viewpoints, that reveal previously unseen details, many of them not directly visible to tourists. A journey created by the use of integrated technologies, to discover historical facades and museums to be explored in total freedom, without physical constraints, without cognitive barriers. The technological basis supporting the visit consists of integrated solutions including digital photogrammetry, 3D modelling, virtual restoration and persuasive storytelling, all organised to provide a product for the general public, to be enjoyed with VR headsets. The available contents are organised on different reading levels, in according to three paths that include: a visit to the MANN (National Archaeological Museum of Naples), a visit within the virtual room dedicated to the most important museums of the city and a virtual walk through the decumani, the heart of historical centre. The virtual enjoyment of contexts no longer visible in original state or not accessible by tourists is resolved by the virtual reconstruction and re-location of artefacts in a virtual space, here called Virtual Room.