National Anti-doping Organizations Research Articles

Exploring the scope and applications of anti-doping measures in ultramarathon: an analysis of the positions of ultramarathon race organizers.

With ultramarathon attracting burgeoning interest, evidence has emerged about doping behaviors. However, currently, research into the anti-doping policy landscape and the adoption of testing and athlete surveillance is limited, including the applicability of rubric from the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and National Anti-Doping Organizations (NADOs). Consequently, it remains unclear if anti-doping provisions have been developed and enforced in ultramarathon, which is a timely consideration given growth in the sport. This study gathered perspectives on anti-doping and testing procedures from ultramarathon race organizers (UMROs). To that end, a sample of n = 35 prominent competitions was compiled using web materials and community engagement, encompassing elite and amateur entrants, diverse course designs, and prize money opportunities. Data-gathering was conducted across two phases between November and December 2023, with an initial review of UMRO web resources. Subsequently, UMROs were contacted via email to validate or ascertain their anti-doping and testing policies. Insights from UMRO respondents were reviewed and coded. UMROs who did not reply were excluded from the analysis. Based on this methodology, the positions of n = 17 UMROs were captured, covering 159 ultramarathon races and approximately 96,500 annual participants. Of these, n = 8 UMROs did not have a self-developed policy and their rubric was pursuant to external authorities like WADA and NADOs. n = 4 had created a specific proprietary policy, which often incorporated WADO or NADO materials. The remaining n = 5 UMROs reported no anti-doping controls were in place at the time of the study. There was also notable heterogeneity in testing and surveillance, ranging from rigorous procedures to an absence of protocols. Interestingly, none of the included UMROs explicitly reported that they had enacted anti-doping measures against athletes. Various determinants could inform these regulatory inconsistencies across UMROs, such as financial constraints, infrastructural and logistical barriers, cultural factors, and the lack of a unifying international federation in ultramarathon. Given the disparate approaches identified in our results, greater cooperation and education may be necessary to enhance understanding about the implications of doping and advance cohesive frameworks. This should involve collaborations with WADA and NADOs to promote best-practices and evidence-based exchanges within the community.

DRUGS IN SPORTS AND RIGHT TO HEALTH: AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Despite India's best efforts, the country has been ranked third on the global doping charts for the past three years running, starting in 2019. Rules and regulations for elite sports must be logically formulated and applied fairly across countries. Doping regulations in India have been the subject of much discussion, drawing attention to the disarray in the country's sports administration. Images of syringes in stadium restrooms have been ubiquitous for decades. Competitions in remote regions of India don't have anti-doping officers present, and if they were, the number of people who fail tests would be far higher. Even if professional athletes have gotten away with doping in the past, amateurs at all levels are putting their health at danger by trying it out in the hopes of landing a job or making the national team.[1] Aiming to promote clean sport, the World Anti-Doping Agency has created and is implementing harmonised regulations under the “World Anti-Doping Code, 2021”. The anti-doping experience varies from country to country because WADA depends mostly on National Anti-Doping Organizations to execute the Code. The existing framework, according to some academics, has an outsized effect on athletes hailing from underdeveloped nations. By examining fundamental problems with the Code's implementation in one such country—India—this essay adds to this discussion. [1] Yuji Takazawa, 'Relationship Between the Level of Willingness to Learn About Anti-Doping and Objective Knowledge Among Japanese University Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Study' (2022) 4 FRONTIERS IN SPORTS AND ACTIVE LIVING 54-68.

‘Athletes’ participation in the National Anti-Doping Organisations of Germany and Poland: democratic governance?’

ABSTRACT Athletes’ participation in sports governance gains momentum at multiple levels and challenges the long-prevailing power relations in organised sport. At the same time, the sport-specific discourse on good governance extends to the field of anti-doping, following low levels of testing effectiveness, untransparent decision-making and ethical misconduct in leading anti-doping authorities. Adopting a case-oriented comparative approach between the National Anti-Doping Organisations (NADOs) of Germany (NADA) and Poland (POLADA), two consecutive data collection steps were applied in mixed-methods design to assess and compare the status quo, and to discuss the future development of athletes’ participation in anti-doping through the lens of democratic processes in good governance research. First, document analysis showed important similarities and differences between the organisations’ approaches to athletes’ participation. Overall, NADA implements a more democratic and transparent approach than POLADA. Second, expert interviews revealed three key issues in relation to democratic forms of athletes’ participation in the two NADOs: athletes’ and their representatives’ (limited) personal resources and engagement (individual); an adequate degree of codification and institutionalisation of athletes’ representation on NADOs’ internal bodies (organisational); and NADOs’ operational (in-)dependence (political/systemic). Researchers and practitioners are recommended to further examine how NADOs’ control functions over athletes and athletes’ participation in their decision-making can be adequately balanced as part of aspirations to foster democratic governance in these organisations.

Assesment of Use of Performance-Enhancing Substances and Methods among Wrestlers, Boxers, and Bodybuilders in Kenya

Measuring prevalence of usage of performance enhancing drugs in Boxing, wrestling, and bodybuilding is difficult. However, to fit their initiatives, National Anti-Doping Organizations are interested in knowing the numbers so that their scarce resources are not wasted. The purpose of this study was to establish knowledge levels, attitudes towards the use of performance enhancing substances (PES), among athletes from boxing, wrestling, and bodybuilding federations in Kenya. The study utilized cross-sectional analytical research design. The study population comprised of 1900 athletes from the three sports disciplines with a sample size of 384 athletes. Close ended questionnaires were used as the data collection instrument. Data obtained from the respondents was coded and organized for analysis by use of SPSS version 25. Hypotheses were tested using one-way ANOVA and t-test at confidence level of 0.05. Post hoc analysis was carried out using Duncan Multiple Range Test where differences were found to be significant. Results on usage showed that majority of the respondents (74.2%) never used food supplements (FS) to improve sports performance. Many of the respondents (93.8%) had never used traditional herbs (TH) to improve sports performance. 91.9% never used PES to improve sports performance. Majority of the respondents (96.6%) indicated as never having been given food supplements by a coach, doctor, or physiotherapist to enhance performance. On supply of PES, 91.7% of the respondents had no information of if medical practitioner, local chemist, or sports agents supplied PES and methods. The results of one-way ANOVA showed that there was a significant difference in the use of FS, TH, PES, and Methods by athletes from the three sports disciplines, [F (2, 381) = 24.050, p < 0.000]. In conclusion and in light of the limitations of this study generally majority of the respondents did not use PES and methods. There were also significant differences in use of PES and methods across the different sports. The study recommended that sports federation officials from boxing, wrestling and bodybuilding should have a put proper structures for imparting knowledge and proper attitude on use of performance enhancing substances among athletes.

Why size matters; rugby union and doping

Rugby Union is a sport where physical attributes such as strength, speed and power, are highly desirable. To this end, there have been suggestions that rugby players might use doping substances to fulfil these said demands. The present study comprises interviews with thirteen doped recreational Welsh Rugby Union players. The study examined: (i) perceived physical demands of rugby; (ii) motivations to lift weights and follow specific diets; and (iii) the motivating factors to use nutritional and doping substances. Participants detail novel insight into doping within recreational Welsh rugby and reaffirm the perception that size matters. Specific factors such as coach reinforcement, age group categories and level of competition, contribute to this perception. Notably, however, participants use/d doping substances for multiple reasons that were context-sensitive, each carrying different weight and influenced by temporal and developmental dimensions. Importantly, most players also referred to factors outside of rugby participation. These findings have important implications for the Welsh Rugby Union and National Anti-Doping Organisations. We recommend that the Welsh Rugby Union target these potentially doping-inducing perceptions, offering more non-elite focused education for both athletes and coaches, with a focus on safe and healthy weight and size gaining practices.

Recreational Athletes’ Use of Performance-Enhancing Substances: Results from the First European Randomized Response Technique Survey

Background and AimMeasuring the prevalence of doping in recreational sport is difficult. However, to fit their initiatives, National Anti-Doping Organizations are interested in knowing the numbers, so their scarce resources are not wasted. The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of doping and over-the-counter medicine use for performance enhancement among recreational athletes in eight European countries.DesignA survey covering + 200 sports aimed at recreational athletes 15 years and older was distributed via social media to sports clubs and individuals in eight European countries. To overcome social desirability bias, we applied indirect questioning by using the Randomized Response Technique and asked for the use of over-the-counter medicine and doping for the year 2019.ResultsThe prevalence of the use of over-the-counter medications for performance enhancement was estimated at 10.4%. We differentiated between the concept of “doping” as the behavior to enhance performance in a certain sport and the concept of “a doper” as a property of a person. The prevalence of dopers in recreational sport was found to be 0.4%, with 3.1% male and 0% female dopers. Responses were separated into four categories: “Artistic sports,” “Combat sports,” “Games,” and “CGS sports” (i.e., sports measured in centimeters, grams, and seconds). The overall prevalence of doping in recreational sports was found to be 1.6%, and the results from Artistic and CGS sports did not differ significantly from this. However, in Games we found an estimated doping prevalence of 6.9%.DiscussionThe estimates for the prevalence of dopers and doping in this study do not equal Anti-Doping Rule Violations as stipulated by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Still, while doping is not absent in recreational sport in Europe, it appears to be a low frequent phenomenon. Also, the differences in doping prevalence between the sports categories might reflect structural and competition-related differences, rather than differences in the logic of the sporting competition or discipline-related subcultures.ConclusionWhile few recreational athletes appear to use illegal drugs to enhance performance, those who do use them are more often men than women. Yet, 1 in 10 recreational athletes uses over-the-counter medication for performance enhancement and more than 4 out of 10 use medication for other reasons than performance enhancement when doing sports. The highest doping prevalence was found in the sub-category of Games, which can likely be attributed to competition-related differences between the categories. Therefore, research on doping in recreational sports needs tailored approaches to come to a better understanding of the phenomenon.

Ten years of collecting hematological athlete biological passport samples-perspectives from a National Anti-doping Organization.

The hematological module of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) aims to reveal blood doping indirectly by looking at selected biomarkers of doping over time. For Anti-Doping Organizations (ADOs), the ABP is a vital tool in the fight against doping in sports through improved target testing and analysis, investigations, deterrence, and as indirect evidence for use of prohibited methods or substances. The physiological characteristics of sport disciplines is an important risk factor in the overall risk assessment and when implementing the hematological module. Sharing of experiences with implementing the hematological ABP between ADOs is key to further strengthen and extend its use. In this study, we present 10 years of experience with the hematological ABP program from the perspectives of a National ADO with special attention to sport disciplines' physiological characteristics as a potential risk factor for blood doping. Not surprisingly, most samples were collected in sport disciplines where the aerobic capacity is vital for performance. The study highlights strengths in Anti-Doping Norway's testing program but also areas that could be improved. For example, it was shown that samples were collected both in and out of season in a subset of the data material that included three popular sports in Norway (Cross-Country Skiing, Nordic Combined, and Biathlon), however, from the total data material it was clear that athletes were more likely to be tested out of competition and on certain days of the week and times of the day. The use of doping control officers with a flexible time schedule and testing outside an athlete's 60 min time-slot could help with a more even distribution during the week and day, and thus reduce the predictability of testing. In addition to promoting a discussion on testing strategies, the study can be used as a starting point for other ADOs on how to examine their own testing program.

The quest for harmonisation in anti-doping: an Indian perspective

The World Anti-Doping Agency aims to promote clean sport through the introduction and implementation of harmonised rules under the World Anti-Doping Code, 2021 (the Code). Since WADA relies heavily on National Anti-Doping Organisations to implement the Code, the experience of anti-doping differs across countries. Some scholars argue that the current framework disproportionately impacts athletes from developing countries. This paper contributes to this debate by analysing systemic issues in the implementation of the Code in one such country—India. The legitimacy of anti-doping in India has been questioned as a result of the recent suspension of the National Dope-Testing Laboratory, a series of false positive tests, accusations of significant procedural and substantive errors by domestic tribunals, and access to justice challenges. Given the prevalence of doping in India, alongside the accumulation of recent controversies and push for reform, a deeper analysis of anti-doping in the country is warranted. The lack of compliance in India with certain requirements set out in the Code, as well as the failure to meet “best practice” standards set by other jurisdictions, is evidence that there is a lack of harmonisation in implementing anti-doping rules and procedures across countries. This paper contributes to the debate on the impact that a lack of harmonisation in the implementation of the Code can have on the legitimacy of the anti-doping framework. From a policy perspective, the proposed research agenda and recommendations can be applied to promote reform in India and other jurisdictions, especially in developing and emerging countries.

Knowledge and experience of Kazakhstan athletes in anti-doping and the impact of past educational intervention

BackgroundAlthough Kazakhstan National Anti-Doping Organization (KazNADO) exists since 2013, but little is yet known about anti-doping (AD) knowledge of Kazakhstan athletes. The aim of this study was to assess the AD education knowledge level and experience among Kazakhstan athletes, as well as the impact of any past AD educational program on them.MethodsAltogether, 590 athletes (the median was age 17 years (interquartile range 8)), representing various sports, participated in the web-based study and completed the questionnaire, which consisted of socio-demographic part and ALPHA test. We assessed the association of any past AD education and experience with anti-doping knowledge using adjusted regression models.ResultsA total of 54.6% participants underwent doping control and 82,7% of athletes received AD education at least once. More than 300 participants (50.8%) provided correct answers for 10 questions. Age and years in sports (competition duration) were significantly associated with the ALPHA scores of athletes. Athletes who received AD education more than once in the past had significantly higher ALPHA scores than non-AD educated athletes in most questions.ConclusionAD education was associated with AD knowledge. Further research is needed to identify the adherence to anti-doping knowledge.

The status quo before the International Standard for Education: Elite adolescent athletes’ perceptions of anti-doping education

Education is a fundamental pillar of anti-doping. With the International Standard for Education (ISE) coming into effect in 2021, understanding the status quo of anti-doping education is paramount. This study aimed to evaluate young elite athletes’ perceptions of the anti-doping education they receive. A total of 2,232 athletes, participating at any of four Youth Olympic events between 2018 and 2020 (representing 49 sport disciplines and 124 countries) were surveyed using an online questionnaire, including questions about the anti-doping education received, athletes’ views about its usefulness and trust in its content. Additionally, anti-doping education programmes of the countries’ National Anti-Doping Organisations (NADOs) were assessed in terms of scope and extent, and categorised as ‘comprehensive’, ‘selective’, ‘limited’ or ‘information-only’. Perceived usefulness and trust were compared between these groups. Three-quarters (73.3%) of the athletes received anti-doping education, its usefulness and trust were rated as ‘good’ (> 4 out of 5). Based on NADO's anti-doping education, athletes in the ‘information-only’ category had significantly lower values for usefulness and trust, while those in the ‘selective’ category had the highest values. Results confirm the importance of a multifaceted education, recommending the implementation of at least one educational approach above information provision as they were perceived to be more useful and trusted, and could facilitate Code compliance via developing skills as well as knowledge for informed decision making.

Athletes’ right to a fair trial in ‘non-analytical positive doping cases’: An analysis

ABSTRACT This paper scrutinises the applicability of anti-doping legal regime as adjudicated in the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS). It argues that the existing provisions dealing with ‘non-analytical positive doping’ in the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) Code are arbitrary and violate the principles of natural justice. While determining ‘non-analytical positive doping violation’, the anti-doping organisations are not required to prove the athlete’s guilt because, under the existing WADA Code, this guilt is presumed regardless of the type of violation. The right to a fair trial is the most fundamental aspect of rule of law meant for the protection of human rights. This paper seeks to examine whether fair trial guarantees are available to the athletes when they are brought for trial before the CAS and National Anti-Doping Organisations. In such cases, CAS panel has evolved a presumption in favour of WADA. The WADA provisions result in a violation of the athlete’s right to a fair trial. The study reveals the existing structural defects of CAS and shortcomings of the WADA Code and issues related to the violation of right to a fair trial.

Anti-doping in China: an analysis of the policy implementation processes through stakeholders’ perspectives

ABSTRACT Despite the vast research on anti-doping policy, little is known about anti-doping in China and how it responds to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Yet this is an important area for understanding anti-doping at the international level. This article explains anti-doping policy implementation processes in China. It uses the Van Meter and Van Horn top-down policy implementation approach to interpret 42 interviews that come from nine different locations in China and from staff at WADA and other National Anti-Doping Organizations (NADOs), to provide a comprehensive understanding of anti-doping implementation. The results demonstrate that while China has the organizational and financial resources to support anti-doping, some potential risks cannot be ignored, such as funding shortages in poorer provinces, the insufficient manpower of the Doping Control Officers (DCOs), and having a clearer strategy for student and non-elite sports contexts.

Understanding and building clean(er) sport together: Community-based participatory research with elite athletes and anti-doping organisations from five European countries

BackgroundIn sport the narrative is changing from anti-doping to pro-clean sport. Yet, our understanding of what ‘clean sport’ means to athletes is notably absent from the literature. ObjectivesWorking together with elite athletes and National Anti-Doping Organisations (NADOs), this study explored the meaning and importance of ‘clean sport’ and ‘clean athlete identity’. DesignCommunity-based participatory research design was employed to explore (a) how elite athletes define clean sport and being a clean athlete; (b) the hopes and challenges associated with clean sport and being a clean athlete; and (c) what can be done in anti-doping to elicit clean sport. MethodsFive elite athletes in five European countries (Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Slovenia and United Kingdom) were recruited as co-researchers by their respective NADOs, trained for their role as co-researchers and individually interviewed. Seventy-seven elite athletes were then purposefully recruited for 12 athlete-led national focus groups. Finally, the five athlete co-researchers and five athlete participants took part in one 2.5-h long international focus group. ResultsReflexive thematic analysis resulted in generating four overarching themes: ‘clean is being true to the self’, ‘clean performance enhancement has multiple meanings’, ‘clean is not a solo act’ and ‘the problems and solutions are systemic’. Collectively, the themes showed that the clean athlete identity is generally rooted in upbringing, early experiences and love of sport; and characterised by continued, intrinsically motivated commitment to fundamental values and morals acquired in childhood. In contrast, the concept of clean performance-enhancement is highly idiosyncratic and flexible. Elite athletes value anti-doping efforts but their experiences of disparity and unfairness in doping control undermine their trust in anti-doping. ConclusionClean athlete identity is a social endeavour and artefact, which needs to be reflected in and developed through evidence-informed anti-doping interventions. Raising athletes' voices via collaboration and participatory research can be an enriching experience for athletes and researchers alike, and a worthwhile endeavour for sport organisations with responsibility for anti-doping. To make anti-doping education personally relevant, the richness of individual interpretation of ‘clean’ for the self (i.e., clean athlete identity) and performance-enhancement must be acknowledged, respected and cultivated.

A level playing field in anti-doping disputes? The need to scrutinize procedural fairness at first instance hearings

The WADA Code upholds the virtues of procedural fairness. Minimum procedural guarantees have been strengthened under the 2021 WADA Code and the International Standard for Results Management. However, implementation of these guarantees by National Anti-Doping Organizations (NADOs) and domestic anti-doping panels are critical in ensuring that athletes are afforded procedural fairness. While some countries have enacted reforms in anti-doping dispute resolution infrastructure, other jurisdictions are arguably lagging behind. Since few doping disputes are heard by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), a strong domestic dispute resolution framework should encourage independence, efficiency and cost-effectiveness, as well as promote consistency and procedural fairness at all levels of hearing. First instance hearings are particularly significant given that CAS is not considered a practical option for many athletes, especially those from developing countries, predominately due to challenges of access to justice and affordability. Irrespective of procedurally unfair decisions at first instance, CAS has the de novo right of review to correct any such irregularities. However, this approach alone is inadequate, especially given that most athletes do not appeal to CAS. CAS, WADA and NADOs all have significant roles to play in ensuring procedural fairness for athletes. WADA and NADOs need to do more to ensure compliance with procedural guarantees at first instance. This paper advances the debate on the importance of procedural fairness and proposes a research agenda to support future reform, arguing that the current anti-doping model needs to reconsider how these important standards are upheld, from first instance until final appeal.

Sports pharmacists: A noble evolving professional in Indian Pharmaceutical Arena

In Sports, the use of Prohibited substance or Prohibited methods or breaking Anti-Doping Rules Violations (ADRV) is termed as Doping. Anti-Doping Administrative Management System (ADAMS) has reported an average increase of 5.81% per year in the number of overall samples analysed (Olympic Sports and NonOlympic Sports) for Anti-doping tests over the last 15 years (2003-2017). Since Mexico-1968 Olympic to Pyeongchang-2018 Olympic, 140 medals were stripped from sports persons due to Adverse Analytical Finding (AAF) at various sports. In sports, there are seven broad classes of substance that are categorized under doping.Several Anti-Doping organizations like National Anti-Doping Agency and World Anti-Doping Agency are working together to prevent doping from sports, providing equal chance to each sports person and to protect health of the athletes. Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) is the final court appeal for any National Anti-Doping Organization or whichever athlete or stakeholders who are breaking the ADRV. Pharmacists are playing an important role in sports by counseling athletes, advising physician and athletic personnel and enlightening the community about the ill effects of Anti-Doping. Sports Pharmacist with their knowledge and expertise can contribute immensely for spreading awareness about anti-doping practices among sports person and hence there is need to develop the concept of Sports Pharmacist in Indian Pharmaceutical Arena

An evaluation of prevention initiatives by 53 national anti-doping organizations: Achievements and limitations

BackgroundOne main purpose of the World Anti-Doping Agency was to harmonize anti-doping efforts, including the provision of anti-doping education. A multifaceted approach to doping prevention can play a key role in preventing intentional and unintentional doping. This article aimed to systematically record and evaluate doping prevention approaches in the form of information and education activities of national anti-doping organizations (NADOs) and assess the extent to which a multifaceted doping prevention approach has been realized. MethodsData on anti-doping information and education activities of 53 NADOs were collected via a survey and an online search of the NADOs’ websites. Prevention activities were classified into knowledge focused, affective focused, social skills, life skills, and ethic- and value- based. The implementation of the prevention activities was assessed by 4 independent raters using a modified visual analogue scale. ResultsIn total, 59% of the NADOs (n = 38) returned the survey and 70% (n = 45) had information available online. The data were combined for the visual analogue scale assessment. Overall, 58% of the NADOs (n = 37) reported offering activities including elements of all 5 approaches. Results of the raters’ assessments indicated that the knowledge-focused approach was best implemented; the implementation of the other 4 approaches was largely unsatisfactory. The most common barriers to implementing doping prevention programs reported by the NADOs were lack of resources (n = 26) and difficulties in collaborating with sports organizations (n = 8). ConclusionResults show a discrepancy between NADOs’ self-report data and the implementation assessment. Even though the NADOs indicated otherwise, most of their education-based approaches did not address aspects of the visual analogue scale (e.g., resisting peer pressure) and only a few programs were ongoing. Possible explanations might be found in the reported barriers (e.g., financial). Concrete guidelines defining multifaceted, values-based education, and best practice examples should be developed to indicate how to include all 5 approaches in prevention.

Cheater, cheater, pumpkin eater: the Dark Triad, attitudes towards doping, and cheating behaviour among athletes

ABSTRACT We examined the relationships between the Dark Triad personality traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy), attitudes towards doping, and cheating behaviour among athletes. One-hundred and sixty-four athletes completed a completed a matrix solving task within a specific time limit. Participants were told they would receive a financial reward for the total number matrices they could solve, but only 13 of the 20 matrices were solvable. This provided the incentive and opportunity for the athletes to cheat. Following this, athletes completed two questionnaires, which assessed the Dark Triad and their attitudes towards doping. All three Dark Triad personality traits correlated positively with attitudes towards doping and cheating behaviour. Regression analyses revealed that psychopathy and narcissism positively predicted attitudes towards doping, and narcissism emerged as a positive predictor of cheating behaviour. Attitudes towards doping correlated positively with cheating behaviour. The Dark Triad appears to be important in relation to both attitudes towards doping and cheating behaviour among athletes. In addition, our findings illustrate that favourable attitudes towards doping are linked with actual cheating among athletes. National Anti-Doping Organizations, sports federations, and coaches could assess athletes’ Dark Triad scores and attitudes towards doping in order to identify who may be more likely to cheat.

Statutory provision as a legal base for data transfers to third countries for anti-doping purposes, under EU and German law

Whenever (national) anti-doping organisations ((N)ADOs) based in the European Union (EU) wish to transfer personal data related to athletes to their partners in “third countries” (countries outside the EU), a set of specific and exacting legal requirements must be met. One of these requirements is the demonstration of a valid legal base. While a previous article focussed on the use of consent, this article weighs the advantages and drawbacks of statutory provision, under EU and German law.

Institutional Mechanisms of International Judicial Cooperation in Combating Doping in Sports

The fight against doping at the legislative level began in 1989 as a result ofthe adoption of the Anti-Doping Convention, signed in Strasbourg.
 Relevance. The relevance of the study is determined, firstly, by the ongoing scientific discussion and lack of consensus on the nature and role of institutional mechanisms of international judicial cooperation in combating doping in modern sports and, secondly, by the identification of the problems and substantiation of the ways of solving them in relation to increasing effectiveness of combating doping in sports.
 Aim.The aim of the article is to develop a functional and legal method that would determine the effectiveness of institutional mechanisms of international judicial cooperation in combating doping in sports.
 Methods. The basic method of the study is the deductive method, allowing to study the nature of institutional mechanisms of international judicial cooperation in combating doping in sports. The main method of the problem solution is the study of the regulatory framework for the implementation of the main provisions of international legal acts regulating the fight against doping.
 Results. The article proves the theoretical pendency of the problem of the implementation of institutional mechanisms of international judicial cooperation in combating doping in sports. The practical significance of the obtained results is associated with the fact that national anti-doping organizations should develop national anti-doping rules and international federations should develop their anti-doping rules.

The uniform plan: a cost–benefit analysis of a proposed CAS first-instance tribunal to hear all anti-doping cases

In April 2017, at a meeting between Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) representatives and representatives from winter sport International Federations (IFs), CAS announced that it intended to establish a permanent anti-doping division, to be operational by the 2020 Summer Olympics, to handle the adjudication of all “first-instance” arbitration hearings involving alleged violations of the World Anti-Doping Code. Spurred by the creation of the CAS Anti-Doping Division at the 2016 Olympic Games, to replace the hearing process formerly conducted by the International Olympic Committee (“IOC”) Disciplinary Commission at prior Olympic Games, this model stands to offer several benefits, including, for example, more uniform treatment of athletes on a global stage, and a uniform panel of qualified arbitrators to decide all first-instance anti-doping matters. CAS’ plan also raises several questions and potential concerns, which include, but are not limited to: the elimination of credible and effective first-instance tribunals set up by certain National Anti-Doping Organizations (“NADOs”) and International Federations (“IFs”); the potential for increased cost to athletes for first-instance hearings; and whether appeals to CAS from a CAS first-instance tribunal can truly offer de novo appellate review. Though there appears to be no intent to eradicate NADOs or their testing authority in the near future, should the IOC and/or a majority of International Federations require the use of a permanent CAS anti-doping division to hear first-instance anti-doping cases, this paper outlines what such an approach could mean for the adjudication of anti-doping matters in sport.