National Adult Reading Test Scores Research Articles

The association between anxiety disorders and hippocampal volume in older adults.

The hippocampus, through its mediation of fear responses is thought to play a central role in the onset and maintenance of anxiety disorders. Prevalence of anxiety disorders remains high in older populations; however, little is known about their association with hippocampal changes in this age group. Due to differing levels of cortisol as adults age, age-related decreases in hippocampal volume, and the suggestion that age-related loss of neurogenesis results in anxiety disorders, this area requires investigation. We examined the association between hippocampal volume and anxiety disorders (social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder) in 534 older adults participating in the Enquête de Santé Psychologique-Risques, Incidence et Traitement (ESPRIT) study of late-life neuropsychiatric disorders. Anxiety disorders were diagnosed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview MINI, French version 5.00. Cross-sectional analyses adjusted for age, educational level, gender, Mini-Mental State Examination scores, National Adult Reading Test scores, whole brain volume and depression found that a diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder was positively associated with larger hippocampal volume. No other anxiety disorder was significantly associated with hippocampal volume. The present study is the first to examine the association between several anxiety disorders and hippocampal volume in an older population and the results highlight the need for further research relating to the relationship between hippocampal volume and anxiety disorders in older adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

What the obesity epidemic does not need: A cancel culture

What the obesity epidemic does not need: A cancel culture

Applying the British picture vocabulary scale to estimate premorbid cognitive ability in adults

Estimating premorbid cognitive ability is an essential part of assessment as well as being an important consideration in research. The most widely used approach to premorbid assessment, The National Adult Reading Test (NART), relies on word reading ability. However, this can be problematic in patients where communication is impaired. This research assessed the effectiveness of a receptive vocabulary test, the British Picture Vocabulary Scale II (BPVS) as an alternative. Correlations were found between the BPVS, NART and the Weschler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) in 87 healthy participants. Regression equations were calculated relating NART and BPVS raw scores to IQ scores in the healthy sample. WASI, NART and BPVS scores were also obtained in 19 patients with varying neurological etiology as part of their routine assessment. Results showed that 18 out of 19 patients obtained BPVS derived IQ scores similar to or higher than their WASI IQ. Whereas mean BPVS derived IQ did not differ significantly between the standardization and clinical samples, WASI IQ scores were lower in the patient group. The findings suggest that the BPVS II ‘holds’ after acquired cognitive impairment and is a promising alternative method for estimating premorbid IQ in patients who have difficulties reading or verbalizing.

A brief report: The National Adult Reading Test (NART) is a stable assessment of premorbid intelligence across disease severity in obstructive sleep apnea (OSA).

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a widely prevalent disorder that can affect cognitive function. The relationship between cognitive function and OSA is known to be affected by an individual's premorbid cognitive ability. Tools to measure premorbid intelligence across OSA disease severity have not been validated. This brief report aims to establish if the National Adult Reading Test (NART) provides a stable estimate of premorbid intelligence across levels of OSA disease severity. We examined if NART scores varied systematically across levels of untreated OSA severity (defined according to the apnea-hypopnea index [AHI]) and mean oxygen saturation in sleep clinic (n=121) and community samples (n=398) using regression analysis. Simple linear regression was used to predict NART scores based on the AHI. NART-estimated premorbid IQ scores without demographics did not vary systematically with AHI (F<1; β=0.01) or mean SpO2 (F<1; β=0.12). NART-estimated premorbid IQ scores with added demographic information also did not vary systematically with AHI (F<1; β=-0.01) or mean SpO2 (F<1; β=0.15). This preliminary examination shows that the NART provides a stable estimate of premorbid intelligence across untreated OSA disease severity, as demarcated by AHI or mean nocturnal SpO2 .

The impact of early-life intelligence quotient on post stroke cognitive impairment.

Cognitive impairment can complicate minor stroke, but there is limited information on risk factors including peak cognitive ability earlier in life. We recruited patients with clinically-evident lacunar or minor non-lacunar ischaemic stroke, recorded clinical features, vascular risk factors, magnetic resonance imaging-detected stroke sub-type and small vessel disease burden. At 1-3 and 12 months after stroke, we assessed educational attainment (years of education), current cognition (Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-Revised), pre-morbid intelligence (National Adult Reading Test) and dependency (modified Rankin Scale). We recruited 157 patients (87 lacunar, 64 non-lacunar ischaemic strokes), median age 66 (inter-quartile range 56-74) years, 36/157 (23%) patients had a Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-Revised score < 82 at one to three months, 29/151 (19%) had a Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-Revised < 82 at one year. Lower National Adult Reading Test score (cognitive impairment per point on National Adult Reading Test odds ratio 0.91, 95% confidence interval 0.87, 0.95) and older age (per year of age odds ratio 1.04 (95% confidence interval 1.01, 1.08) predicted one-year cognitive impairment more than stroke severity (per point on National Institute of Health Stroke Scale odds ratio 0.96 (95% confidence interval 0.0.68, 1.31)) or vascular risk factors e.g. hypertension (odds ratio for diagnosis of hypertension 0.52 (95% confidence interval 0.24, 1.15). Cognitive impairment was associated with having more white matter hyper-intensities (odds ratio per point increase in Fazekas score 1.42, 95% confidence interval 1.11, 1.83). This observational study provides evidence that pre-morbid intelligence quotient and education predict cognition after stroke, and confirms the association between cognitive impairment and small vessel disease. Pre-morbid intelligence should be considered in future studies of post-stroke cognition.

Depression is associated with lower American National Adult Reading Test scores among rural dwellers aged between 50 and 64 years in Texas: A Project FRONTIER Study

Background: Previous studies have shown that depression is associated with cognitiveimpairment. However, others have shown that there is no significant difference in the scoresof the National Adult Reading Test (NART), a screening test for intellectual functioning andgeneral level of education, between those with vs. without depression. This study sought toexamine whether depression is associated with the American version of NART (AMNART) ina rural cohort of West Texas.Methods: Participants with IQ and AMNART tests were selected from Project FRONTIER,an ongoing epidemiology study of rural residents in four West Texas counties.Results: AMNART scores were significantly lower in participants with depression(23.3±9.2) vs. those without depression (25.9±9.9) (p&lt;0.05). Analysis by age group showedthat AMNART scores were significantly lower in those with depression (22.0±10.1) comparedwith those without depression (26.2±10.2) in the age group 50 to 64 years (P=0.0322). AlthoughAMNART scores were lower in participants with depression than those without depression inthe age groups 40 to 49 years (25.0±8.6 vs. 26.2±10.2) and 65 years or older (23.6±8.2 vs.25.6±9.5), they were not statistically significantly different.Conclusions: Depression is associated with lower AMNART scores in rural residentsaged between 50 and 64 years in West Texas.

The relationship of bilingualism to cognitive decline: The Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing.

We wished to clarify the link between bilingualism and cognitive decline, and examine whether improved executive function due to bilingualism may be a factor in preventing cognitive decline. We used the Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing which collected data on 2087 participants aged over 65 over 20years. We compared baseline demographics, health, and social characteristics between bilingual and non-bilingual participants. We used linear mixed models analysis to explore the effect of bilingualism on MMSE score over time and linear regression to explore the effect of bilingualism on baseline MMSE scores, controlling for pre-specified potential confounders. Bilingual participants had lower baseline MMSE scores than the non-bilingual population (mean difference=-2.3 points; 95% confidence intervals=1.56-2.90). This was fully explained by education and National Adult Reading Test scores (17.4; standard deviation [SD] =7.7 versus 28.1; SD=8.2) which also partly explained baseline executive function test scores differences. Bilingual and non-bilingual participants did not differ in MMSE decline over time (-0.33 points, P=0.31) nor on baseline tests of executive function (-0.26, P=0.051). In this cohort, education rather than bilingualism was a predictor of MMSE score, and being bilingual did not protect from cognitive decline. We conclude that bilingualism is complex, and when it is not the result of greater educational attainment, it does not always protect from cognitive decline. Neuroprotective effects of bilingualism over time may be attributable to the precise patterns of language use but not to bilingualism per se.

CLIN-NEURO-COGNITIVE

CLIN-NEURO-COGNITIVE NC-02. ASSESSING NEURO-COGNITIVE STATUS IN NEWLY PRESENTING PATIENTS WITH SUPRATENTORIAL INTRACRANIAL TUMOURS. Jennifer L. Scotland1, Ian R. Whittle1, and Ian J. Deary2; University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, Dept. of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom INTRODUCTION: Neurocognitive endpoints are increasingly included in clinical trials in neuro-oncological settings (Meyers & Brown, 2006). There is a need to identify short, repeatable measures of cognition that are sensitive to impairment in this group. Previous authors have proposed such batteries. METHODS: Newly presenting patients with a radiological diagnosis of any intracranial tumour (n 1⁄4 118) were assessed, prior to any surgical intervention, on a number of standardised cognitive and other measures as part of a larger study (Scotland et al., 2012). Their performance was compared with that of patients admitted for elective spinal surgery (n 1⁄4 85) and a healthy control group (n 1⁄4 80). RESULTS: Analysis of covariance compared the performance of the three groups. Age, sex, and National Adult Reading Test score (used to assess premorbid function) were the covariates. Patients with intracranial tumours performed significantly worse on the majority of the tests. The intracranial tumour cohort had significantly lower scores than did the spinal surgery and healthy control groups on the following measures: immediate and delayed memory (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, RAVLT; p , 0.001); Trail Making Test Part B (p , 0.001); digit-symbol coding (p , 0.001); and verbal fluency (Controlled Oral Word Association Test, COWAT; p 1⁄4 0.002 and p , 0.001, respectively). There was a moderate-to-large effect size in the participant group for all tests. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSIONS: The RAVLT, Trail Making Test Part B, and COWAT are sensitive measures of cognitive impairment in patients with brain tumours and support Meyers & Brown’s (2006) proposal for the inclusion of these tests in clinical trials that have neurocognitive endpoints. The verbal fluency test, in particular, has a number of potential advantages for use in neuro-oncological settings, given that it can be completed by patients with focal motor deficits and is available in alternate forms to reduce practice effects. NC-03. A STANDARD NEUROLINGUISTIC APPROACH TO

No association between gain in body mass index across the life course and midlife cognitive function and cognitive reserve—The 1946 British birth cohort study

BackgroundThe association between lifelong body mass index (BMI) and cognitive function has not been comprehensively studied.MethodsIn more than 2000 men and women born in 1946, we tested associations between BMI gain at 15, 20, 26, 36, 43, and 53 years with respect to the previous measure (gain at age 15 years with respect to BMI at age 11 years), and semantic fluency (animal naming) and cognitive reserve (the National Adult Reading Test) at age 53 years, and verbal memory (word list recall) and speed/concentration (letter cancellation) at ages 43 and 53 years. Measures of BMI gain were adjusted in stages for childhood intelligence, education, socioeconomic position (SEP), lifestyle, and vascular risk factors.ResultsIndependent of childhood intelligence, BMI gain between ages 26 and 36 years was associated with lower memory scores (β per SD increase in BMI in men = −0.11; 95% confidence interval [CI]: −0.19, −0.02), verbal fluency (β in women = −0.11; 95% CI: −0.20, −0.02), and lower National Adult Reading Test score (β in women = −0.08; 95% CI: −0.15, −0.01), but not with speed/concentration (β in men = 0.02; 95% CI: −0.11, 0.07). Associations were largely explained by educational attainment and SEP (P ≥ .10). However, BMI gain at 53 years in men was independently associated with better memory (β = 0.12; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.22), and both underweight (β = −1.54; 95% CI: −2.52, −0.57) and obese (β = −0.30; 95% CI: −2.52, −0.57) women at 53 years had significantly lower memory scores.ConclusionThe adverse effect of higher BMI gain on midlife cognitive function and cognitive reserve is independent of childhood intelligence but not of education and SEP. The independent association between greater BMI gain in midlife and better cognitive function deserves further investigation.

Reading in schizophrenic subjects and their nonsymptomatic first-degree relatives.

Previous studies have demonstrated eye movement abnormalities during smooth pursuit and antisaccadic tasks in schizophrenia. However, eye movements have not been investigated during reading. The purpose of this study was to determine whether schizophrenic subjects and their nonsymptomatic first-degree relatives show eye movement abnormalities during reading. Reading rate, number of saccades per line, amplitudes of saccades, percentage regressions (reverse saccades), and fixation durations were measured using an eye tracker (EyeLink, SensoMotoric Instruments, Germany) in 38 schizophrenic volunteers, 14 nonaffected first-degree relatives, and 57 control volunteers matched for age and National Adult Reading Test scores. Parameters were examined when volunteers read full pages of text and text was limited to progressively smaller viewing areas around the point of fixation using a gaze-contingent window. Schizophrenic volunteers showed significantly slower reading rates (P = .004), increase in total number of saccades (P ≤ .001), and a decrease in saccadic amplitude (P = .025) while reading. Relatives showed a significant increase in total number of saccades (P = .013) and decrease in saccadic amplitude (P = .020). Limitation of parafoveal information by reducing the amount of visible characters did not change the reading rate of schizophrenics but controls showed a significant decrease in reading rate with reduced parafoveal information (P < .001). Eye movement abnormalities during reading of schizophrenic volunteers and their first-degree relatives suggest that visual integration of foveal and parafoveal information may be reduced in schizophrenia. Reading abnormalities in relatives suggest a genetic influence in reading ability in schizophrenia and rule out confounding effects of medication.

Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers are independent determinants of cognition.

The objective of this study was to investigate how a measure of educational and occupational attainment, a component of cognitive reserve, modifies the relationship between biomarkers of pathology and cognition in Alzheimer's disease. The biomarkers evaluated quantified neurodegeneration via atrophy on magnetic resonance images, neuronal injury via cerebral spinal fluid t-tau, brain amyloid-β load via cerebral spinal fluid amyloid-β1–42 and vascular disease via white matter hyperintensities on T2/proton density magnetic resonance images. We included 109 cognitively normal subjects, 192 amnestic patients with mild cognitive impairment and 98 patients with Alzheimer's disease, from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative study, who had undergone baseline lumbar puncture and magnetic resonance imaging. We combined patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease in a group labelled ‘cognitively impaired’ subjects. Structural Abnormality Index scores, which reflect the degree of Alzheimer's disease-like anatomic features on magnetic resonance images, were computed for each subject. We assessed Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale (cognitive behaviour section) and mini-mental state examination scores as measures of general cognition and Auditory–Verbal Learning Test delayed recall, Boston naming and Trails B scores as measures of specific domains in both groups of subjects. The number of errors on the American National Adult Reading Test was used as a measure of environmental enrichment provided by educational and occupational attainment, a component of cognitive reserve. We found that in cognitively normal subjects, none of the biomarkers correlated with the measures of cognition, whereas American National Adult Reading Test scores were significantly correlated with Boston naming and mini-mental state examination results. In cognitively impaired subjects, the American National Adult Reading Test and all biomarkers of neuronal pathology and amyloid load were independently correlated with all cognitive measures. Exceptions to this general conclusion were absence of correlation between cerebral spinal fluid amyloid-β1–42 and Boston naming and Trails B. In contrast, white matter hyperintensities were only correlated with Boston naming and Trails B results in the cognitively impaired. When all subjects were included in a flexible ordinal regression model that allowed for non-linear effects and interactions, we found that the American National Adult Reading Test had an independent additive association such that better performance was associated with better cognitive performance across the biomarker distribution. Our main conclusions included: (i) that in cognitively normal subjects, the variability in cognitive performance is explained partly by the American National Adult Reading Test and not by biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease pathology; (ii) in cognitively impaired subjects, the American National Adult Reading Test, biomarkers of neuronal pathology (structural magnetic resonance imaging and cerebral spinal fluid t-tau) and amyloid load (cerebral spinal fluid amyloid-β1–42) all independently explain variability in general cognitive performance; and (iii) that the association between cognition and the American National Adult Reading Test was found to be additive rather than to interact with biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease pathology.

Gender Nonconformity, Intelligence, and Sexual Orientation

The present study explored whether there were relationships among gender nonconformity, intelligence, and sexual orientation. A total of 106 heterosexual men, 115 heterosexual women, and 103 gay men completed measures of demographic variables, recalled childhood gender nonconformity (CGN), and the National Adult Reading Test (NART). NART error scores were used to estimate Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) Full-Scale IQ (FSIQ) and Verbal IQ (VIQ) scores. Gay men had significantly fewer NART errors than heterosexual men and women (controlling for years of education). In heterosexual men, correlational analysis revealed significant associations between CGN, NART, and FSIQ scores (elevated boyhood femininity correlated with higher IQ scores). In heterosexual women, the direction of the correlations between CGN and all IQ scores was reversed (elevated girlhood femininity correlating with lower IQ scores). There were no significant correlations among these variables in gay men. These data may indicate a "sexuality-specific" effect on general cognitive ability but with limitations. They also support growing evidence that quantitative measures of sex-atypicality are useful in the study of trait sexual orientation.

Functional equivalence of the National Adult Reading Test (NART) and Schonell reading tests and NART norms in the Dynamic Analyses to Optimise Ageing (DYNOPTA) project

This study investigates the functional equivalence of two measures of irregular word pronunciation—National Adult Reading Test (NART) and Schonell—which are popular instruments used to assess verbal neurocognitive functioning and to estimate premorbid IQ. We report norms for the NART in a pooled sample from 3 Australian population-based studies of adults aged 65–103 years. Norms were stratified by sex and age left school in 5-year age groups. The NART and the Schonell had a strong linear relation, allowing for the imputation of NART scores based on Schonell performance within 1 study. Neither measure was sensitive to the effects of sex after adjusting for the effects of age and education. Early school leavers performed worse on both measures. Data pooling enables greater precision and improved generalizability of NART norms than do methods that use single older adult samples.

Depression, Avolition, and Attention Disorders in Patients with Schizophrenia: Associations with Verbal Memory Efficiency

Depression, Avolition, and Attention Disorders in Patients with Schizophrenia: Associations with Verbal Memory Efficiency

Role of processing speed and premorbid IQ on visual recognition in patients with schizophrenia

Previous research had shown that processing speed and premorbid IQ are predictors of verbal-memory efficiency in patients with schizophrenia. We investigated whether the same factors are involved in visual memory. A total of 49 patients with schizophrenia and 43 healthy controls were administered a picture recognition task. Half of the pictures were black and white, and half were in color, in order to vary the depth of encoding. Processing speed was measured by three standard tasks, and premorbid IQ was measured by the National Adult Reading Test (NART). Patients were significantly impaired in picture recognition. Regression analyses revealed that NART score was a significant predictor of the recognition of both types of picture in patients. Processing speed was a significant predictor of the recognition of the colored pictures. The effect of diagnosis on the recognition of colored pictures was reduced to nonsignificance when processing speed was entered in the regression. These data suggest that premorbid IQ is involved in visual-recognition efficiency. However, the deficit observed in patients is accounted for by decreased processing speed.

Estimating Premorbid Intelligence in Schizophrenia Patients: Demographically Based Approach

The aim of the present study was to provide a useful and quick estimate of premorbid intelligence that can be used in the population of schizophrenia patients. Regression analysis (stepwise procedure) was used to identify which of five demographic variables significantly predicted National Adult Reading Test (NART) scores in schizophrenia patients. The new regression equation was subsequently assessed in an independent patient sample. The results were compared with scores obtained for an equation developed in healthy populations. Age, occupation, and education contributed significantly to the equation, which accurately predicted NART scores in the patient sample. The equation developed in healthy people, however, consistently underestimated NART scores. Equations developed in healthy people are not accurate predictors of NART scores. By contrast, the new equation acknowledges the educational and occupational characteristics typical of individuals with schizophrenia. The equation should be used cautiously, but can be used as a rapid estimate when it is not possible to conduct a cognitive assessment using more traditional approaches.

Skull size and intelligence, and King Robert Bruce's IQ

An estimate of someone's IQ is a potentially informative personal datum. This study examines the association between external skull measurements and IQ scores, and uses the resulting regression equation to provide an estimate of the IQ of King Robert I of Scotland (Robert Bruce, 1274–1329). Participants were 48 relatively healthy Caucasian men (age 71–76 years) resident in Scotland. Using magnetic resonance imaging data, intracranial volume estimated from external skull length and width correlated greater than .5 ( p < .001) with measured intracranial area, which correlates very highly with brain volume. IQ scores estimated from the National Adult Reading Test (NART) correlated .56 ( p < .001) with measured intracranial area, and .49 ( p < .01) with estimated intracranial volume based on external skull width and length. The partial correlation coefficient of this latter association was .25 ( p = .09) after adjustment for measured intracranial area. Thus, actual intracranial area accounts for about 74% of the variance shared by NART and estimated intracranial volume. A cast of the skull of Robert Bruce was measured and its intracranial volume estimated. A regression equation between IQ and estimated intracranial volume, based on data from the 48 subjects, estimated the IQ of Robert Bruce at about 128 (95% confidence interval 106 to ≫ 130), i.e. almost two standard deviations above the mean. NART scores show a ceiling effect, so this estimated IQ might be an underestimate. Robert Bruce's estimated high IQ is congruent with his military, political and other intellectual achievements.

Estimation de l’intelligence prémorbide chez les francophones

Resume Il est important de connaitre l’intelligence premorbide lors de l’evaluation de la demence en clinique et en recherche. Ceci permet de determiner si la performance cognitive actuelle est stable (pendant toute la vie) ou s’il s’agit d’un declin recent. Chez les personnes anglophones, l’evaluation du quotient d’intelligence (QI) premorbide est effectuee couramment par le National Adult Reading Test (NART). Il a ete demontre que ce test est un indicateur robuste vis-a-vis de la demence. La presente etude a cherche a confirmer la validite et les proprietes psychomotrices d’une version francaise du NART. Le test est base sur la capacite de prononcer 40 mots dont l’orthographe est irreguliere. Le test a ete administre dans le cadre d’une etude epidemiologique chez des personnes âgees de 65 a 94 ans, vivant dans le canton de Geneve en Suisse. Les donnees completes de 368 personnes (dont 50 % d’hommes) sur un echantillon total de 456 personnes ont ete suffisantes pour effectuer une analyse statistique. Le coefficient alpha de Cronbach etait eleve pour l’echelle de 40 items (0,89). La theorie de reponse aux items (TRI) a montre que le test etait essentiellement unidimensionnel et que deviner la prononciation des mots n’influencait pas sa performance. La plupart des items etaient performants, montrant une saturation factorielle moyenne de 0,53. La validite du test comme mesure d’intelligence a ete demontree statistiquement par des etudes de correlations entre les mesures de l’intelligence cristalline, de la memoire et de la vitesse de traitement (Multiple R = 0,62). La comparaison avec les resultats obtenus par les etudes precedentes effectuees a Montpellier (France) montre qu’un bon nombre d’items fonctionnent dans chaque groupe de maniere identique. Des etudes supplementaires sont necessaires pour valider le fNART par rapport a des tests d’intelligence courants comme le WAIS et pour l’appliquer dans les differentes regions de langue francaise. Le test developpe dans le cadre de cette etude offre aux cliniciens et chercheurs une methode facile d’estimation de l’intelligence premorbide en utilisant un test robuste face au declin cognitif. Il est disponible gratuitement sur le site Internet : http://www.mhri.edu.au/biostats/fNART .

The influence of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy on cognitive functioning: results from an observational study

The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) upon memory deficit in a group of urban Australian women. A cohort of 493 women aged 40-80 years was tested as part of the Longitudinal Study of Ageing in Women (LAW study) at the Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Brisbane, Australia. The current memory functioning of participants was evaluated using the Wechsler Memory Scale - version three (WMS-III) while pre-morbid cognitive functioning was estimated from scores on the National Adult Reading Test (NART). Memory deficit was estimated by comparing NART scores with the age-corrected scale scores of the WMS-III. Overall, NART scores correlated with WMS-III scores, consistent with the expected relationship between pre-morbid functioning and current functioning. For the sample as a whole, memory deficit was evident but mostly, age appropriate. There was considerable variation as to the extent of memory deficit within the sample. When memory functioning for women with a history of five or more years of combined oestrogen plus progestogen HRT or oestrogen replacement therapy (ERT) was compared with that of women who had never used HRT or ERT there was no evidence of any effect for either HRT or ERT on memory deficit. The use of HRT or ERT had neither a protective nor an adverse effect on memory deficit.

How robust is performance on the National Adult Reading Test following traumatic brain injury?

To investigate whether National Adult Reading Test (NART) performance may be impaired by severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). A sample of 26 people who had been given a NART within 12 months of a severe TBI was given a second NART at least 12 months after the first NART. Mean performance on the second NART was significantly better than performance on the first NART. Of the participants, 11 (42%) showed an improvement of more than 5 IQ points in respect of the verbal IQ estimates based on their NART scores, with three participants showing an improvement of 20 points. In applying the NART to determine the presence of an acquired intellectual impairment, use of the first NART scores alone would have resulted in such impairments being missed in at least 25% of a subsample of 16 participants for whom an actual verbal IQ had been obtained at the time of the first NART. An NART given within 12 months of a severe TBI runs the risk of significantly underestimating pre-morbid IQ. If applied in this context, it is recommended that the NART score is used in conjunction with other methods of estimation, such as those based on demographic data.