Narrow Molar Mass Distribution Research Articles

Synthesis of alternating polyesters using a dual catalytic system of alkali metal alkoxides and crown ether

In this study, a dual catalytic system that merges crown ether with alkali metal alkoxides (AMA) is utilized in the ring-opening alternating polymerization (ROAP) of phthalic anhydride (PA) and propylene oxide (PO). This method streamlines the production of polyesters characterized by a fully alternating sequence, a modifiable molar mass (achieving up to 59.3 kg mol−1), and a narrow molar mass distribution (ÐM < 1.26). Analysis of various commercially available AMAs, notably sodium ethoxide (EtONa), sodium methoxide, and lithium ethoxide, in tandem with crown ethers (15-crown-5 and 18-crown-6), underscores the superior catalytic efficacy of the EtONa and 18-crown-6 pairing. This heightened efficiency is attributed to the coordination of crown ether with alkali metal ions, thereby boosting the nucleophilicity of terminal alkoxide anions. The methodology has been successfully deployed in the ROAP of PA, norbornene anhydride, and multiple epoxides, while also simplifying the creation of aliphatic–aromatic block polyesters from a mixture of PA, PO, and lactide. This strategy presents a straightforward approach to polyester production, thus making significant contributions to the evolution of polyester synthesis technology.

2‐Azetine Derivatives as a Class of New Monomers for Controlled Ring‐Opening Metathesis Polymerization towards Polyenamides†

Comprehensive SummaryNitrogen‐containing polymers have found a wide myriad of applications in materials science and other different areas, and have attracted much attention towards the development of new synthetic methods. Ring‐opening metathesis polymerization represents an area of great versatility and potential for the synthesis of highly functionalized polymers with low dispersity and control over molecular weight and architecture complexity. Expanding the scope of monomers through the incorporation of nitrogen atoms would further expand their utilities. In this work, a controlled synthesis of polymers with in‐chain enamide moiety through ring‐opening metathesis polymerization was developed by utilizing azetine derivatives as the monomers. Relatively short synthetic routes were designed and generated a panel of five monomers. The polymerization exhibited living characteristics, as linear relationship between molecular weights and degrees of polymerization and relatively narrow molar mass distributions were observed, which was further confirmed by successful diblock copolymers formation through sequential addition of two monomers. The resulting polymers that contain the enamide moiety within the backbone exhibited good stability and underwent facile degradation under acidic conditions.

BaTiO3 Catalyzed Ultrasonic-Driven Piezoelectric-Induced Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain-Transfer Polymerization in Aqueous Media.

Compared with normal stimulus such as light and heat, ultrasonic possesses much deeper penetration into tissues and organs and has lower scattering in heterogeneous systems as a noninvasive stimulus. Reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization (RAFT) in aqueous media is performed in a commercial ultrasonic wash bath with 40kHz frequency ultrasonic, in the presence of piezoelectric tetragonal BaTiO3 (BTO) nanoparticles. Owing to the electron transfer from BTO under the ultrasonic action, the water can be decomposed to produce hydroxyl radical (HO•) and initiate the RAFT polymerization (piezo-RAFT). The piezo-RAFT polymerization exhibits features of controllable and livingness, such as linear increase of molar mass and narrow molar mass distributions (Mw/Mn < 1.20). Excellent temporal control of the polymerization and the chain fidelity of polymers are illustrated by "ON and OFF" experiment and chain extension, separately. Moreover, this ultrasonic-driven piezoelectric-induced RAFT polymerization in aqueous media can be directly used for the preparation of piezoelectric hydrogel which have potential application for stress sensor.

BaTiO3 catalyzed ultrasonic driven piezoelectric induced miniemulsion atom transfer radical polymerization (Piezo-miniATRP)

Compared with other stimulus such as light and heat, ultrasonic possesses much deeper penetration into tissues and organs and has lower scattering in heterogeneous systems as a noninvasive stimulus, and has already been used as the external stimulus to initiate reversible-deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP). However, the development of efficient ultrasonic drive RDRP in aqueous dispersed media remains a challenge. Here in this work, ultrasonic driven piezoelectric induced miniemulsion atom transfer radical polymerization (Piezo-miniATRP) was performed, with tetragonal BaTiO3 (BTO) nanoparticles as the piezoelectric catalyst. The Piezo-miniATRP exhibited features of controllable and livingness, such as linear increase of molar mass and narrow molar mass distributions (Mw/Mn < 1.30). The effect of different polymerization parameters on the polymerization reaction was investigated, including the amounts of surfactant, CuBr2 and BTO dosages. Excellent temporal control of the polymerization and the chain fidelity of polymers were illustrated by “ON and OFF” experiment and chain extension, separately. This novel BTO catalyzed Piezo-miniATRP process could also be extended to other aqueous dispersion RDRP systems.

Peculiar Behavior of Methyl Methacrylate Emulsion Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly Mediated by RAFT Using Poly(Methacrylic Acid) Macromolecular Chain Transfer Agent.

Reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) emulsion polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) is successfully performed in water in the presence of a poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA) macromolecular chain transfer agent (macroCTA) leading to the formation of self-stabilized PMAA-b-PMMA amphiphilic block copolymer particles. At pH3.7, the reactions are well-controlled with narrow molar mass distributions. Increasing the initial pH, particularly above 5.6, results in a partial loss of reactivity of the PMAA macroCTA. The effect of the degree of polymerization (DPn) of the PMMA block, the solids content, the nature of the hydrophobic segment, and the pH on the morphology of the obtained diblock copolymer particles is then investigated. Worm-like micelles are formed for a DPn of PMMA of 20 (PMMA20), while "onion-like" particles and spherical vesicles are obtained for PMMA30 and PMMA50, respectively. In contrast, spherical particles are obtained for the DPns higher than 150. This unusual evolution of particle morphologies upon increasing the DPn of the PMMA block seems to be related to hydrogen bonds between hydrophilic MAA and hydrophobic MMA units.

Using RAFT Polymerization Methodologies to Create Branched and Nanogel-Type Copolymers.

This review aims to highlight the most recent advances in the field of the synthesis of branched copolymers and nanogels using reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. RAFT polymerization is a reversible deactivation radical polymerization technique (RDRP) that has gained tremendous attention due to its versatility, compatibility with a plethora of functional monomers, and mild polymerization conditions. These parameters lead to final polymers with good control over the molar mass and narrow molar mass distributions. Branched polymers can be defined as the incorporation of secondary polymer chains to a primary backbone, resulting in a wide range of complex macromolecular architectures, like star-shaped, graft, and hyperbranched polymers and nanogels. These subcategories will be discussed in detail in this review in terms of synthesis routes and properties, mainly in solutions.

Hybrid anionic block copolymerization: From organocatalysis‐streamlined crossover to internally microphase‐separated aggregates

AbstractPolyolefin‐b‐poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) represents the most widely investigated amphiphilic block copolymers. So far, one‐pot continuous synthesis of such hybrid block copolymers has only been fulfilled by anionic polymerization through sequential addition of vinyl monomers and ethylene oxide (EO). It still remains challenging to achieve altogether high block efficiency, high polymerization efficiency, and high molar mass for PEO. Here, we report a one‐pot hybrid block copolymerization approach to polyisoprene/polystyrene(PI/PS)‐b‐PEO, in which PI/PS are formed by sBuLi‐initiated anionic vinyl‐addition polymerization, then in situ employed as macroinitiators for the anionic ring‐opening polymerization (ROP) of EO aided by an organic Lewis pair. The cooperative (dual‐ion‐complexing) catalytic effect of organobase and triethylborane is proven, for the first time, effective for lithium alkoxide initiator system, allowing to achieve at room temperature high ROP activity (complete EO conversion and PEO of 3–64 kg/mol reached in 1–6 h), narrow molar mass distribution, controlled block lengths and composition. Density functional theory calculation shows that phosphazene bases are particularly effective, compared with N‐heterocyclic bases, for complexing with Li+ and enhancing the nucleophilicity of oxyanion. The rate of ROP is also affected by Li+‐induced aggregation of the chain‐end ion pairs, which though can be offset by adequate catalyst loadings. The versatility of this approach is further demonstrated in the one‐pot synthesis of tri‐/tetrablock ter‐/quaterpolymers constituted by PI, PS, PEO, and poly(propylene oxide). Of great interest, PS‐b‐PI‐b‐PEO triblock terpolymer with a specific composition is found to form internally microphase‐separated micellar aggregates when dispersed in water.

Tailoring Gene Transfer Efficacy through the Arrangement of Cationic and Anionic Blocks in Triblock Copolymer Micelles.

The arrangement of charged segments in triblock copolymer micelles affects the gene delivery potential of polymeric micelles and can increase the level of gene expression when an anionic segment is incorporated in the outer shell. Triblock copolymers were synthesized by RAFT polymerzation with narrow molar mass distributions and assembled into micelles with a hydrophobic core from poly(n-butyl acrylate). The ionic shell contained either (i) an anionic segment followed by a cationic segment (HAC micelles) or (ii) a cationic block followed by an anionic block (HCA micelles). The pH-responsive anionic block contained 2-carboxyethyl acrylamide (CEAm), while the cationic block comprised 3-guanidinopropyl acrylamide (GPAm). Increasing the molar content of CEAm in HAC and HCA micelles from 6 to 13 mol % improved cytocompatibility and the endosomal escape property, while the HCA micelle with the highest mol % of anionic charges in the outer shell exhibited the highest gene expression. It became evident that improved membrane interaction of the best performing HCA micelle contributed to achieving high gene expression.

Cyclic ether and anhydride ring opening copolymerisation delivering new ABB sequences in poly(ester-alt-ethers).

Poly(ester-alt-ethers) are interesting as they combine the ester linkage rigidity and potential for hydrolysis with ether linkage flexibility. This work describes a generally applicable route to their synthesis applying commercial monomers and yielding poly(ester-alt-ethers) with variable compositions and structures. The ring-opening copolymerisation of anhydrides (A), epoxides (B) and cyclic ethers (C), using a Zr(iv) catalyst, produces either ABB or ABC type poly(ester-alt-ethers). The catalysis is effective using a range of commercial anhydrides (A), including those featuring aromatic, unsaturated or tricyclic monomers, and with different alkylene oxides (epoxides, B), including those featuring aliphatic, alkene or ether substituents. The range of effective cyclic ethers (C) includes tetrahydrofuran, 2,5-dihydrofuran (DHF) or 1,4-bicyclic ether (OBH). In these investigations, the catalyst:anhydride loadings are generally held constant and deliver copolymers with degrees of copolymerisation of 25, with molar mass values from 4 to 11 kg mol-1 and mostly with narrow dispersity molar mass distributions. All the new copolymers are amorphous, they show the onset of thermal decomposition between 270 and 344 °C and variable glass transition temperatures (-50 to 48 °C), depending on their compositions. Several of the new poly(ester-alt-ethers) feature alkene substituents which are reacted with mercaptoethanol, by thiol-ene processes, to install hydroxyl substituents along the copolymer chain. This strategy affords poly(ether-alt-esters) featuring 30, 70 and 100% hydroxyl substituents (defined as % of monomer repeat units featuring a hydroxyl group) which moderate physical properties such as hydrophilicity, as quantified by water contact angles. Overall, the new sequence selective copolymerisation catalysis is shown to be generally applicable to a range of anhydrides, epoxides and cyclic ethers to produce new families of poly(ester-alt-ethers). In future these copolymers should be explored for applications in liquid formulations, electrolytes, surfactants, plasticizers and as components in adhesives, coatings, elastomers and foams.

Membrane-Active Thermoresponsive Block Copolymers Containing a Diacylglycerol-Based Segment: RAFT Synthesis, Doxorubicin Encapsulation, and Evaluation of Cytotoxicity against Breast Cancer Cells.

Herein, we report the formation of drug delivery systems from original thermoresponsive block copolymers containing lipid-based segments. Two acrylate monomers derived from palmitic- or oleic-acid-based diacylglycerols (DAGs) were synthesized and polymerized by the reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) method. Well-defined DAG-based polymers with targeted molar masses and narrow molar mass distributions were next used as macro-chain transfer agents (macro-CTAs) for the polymerization of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAAm) or N-vinylcaprolactam (NVCL). The obtained amphiphilic block copolymers were formed into polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) with and without encapsulated doxorubicin and characterized. Their biological assessment indicated appropriate cytocompatibility with the representatives of normal cells. Furthermore, compared to the free drug, increased cytotoxicity and apoptosis or necrosis induction in breast cancer cells was documented, including a highly aggressive and invasive triple-negative MDA-MB-231 cell line.

Fine‐tuning in‐plane interdomain spacing of polystyrene‐b‐poly(ethene‐co‐butadiene)‐b‐polystyrene triblock copolymer adding monodisperse polystyrene

The influence of adding narrow molar mass distribution polystyrene (PS) homopolymer on the morphology and/or dewetting processing of polystyrene‐b‐poly(ethene‐co‐butadiene)‐b‐polystyrene triblock copolymer (SEBS) thin films was investigated. The addition of the homopolymer caused a transition from non‐straight ribbons (with regularly spaced necks) to a spherical microdomain structure for an amount of 75 vol% PS (SEBS/PS 1:3), which also shows an interdomain distance increase of three times with respect to the neat SEBS. This spacing and interdomain distance control coincides with the amount of homopolymer added in the blend. The blending with PS demonstrates an approach to fine‐tuning the block copolymer structure and tailoring in‐plane microdomain spacing. Smaller or higher amounts of PS changed the spontaneous patterned structure originally observed for the neat triblock copolymer, resulting in a non‐ordered microphase separation. © 2023 Society of Industrial Chemistry.

The Effect of mPEGA/EHA Ratio and Copolymer Composition on the Solution Behavior of Amphiphilic, Comb‐Shape Copolymers Synthesized via Cu(0)‐Mediated SET‐LRP for Potential Drug Delivery Applications

AbstractComb‐shape, block copolymers from hydrophilic poly(ethylenglycol) monomethyl ether acrylate (mPEGA, A) and hydrophobic 2‐ethylhexyl acrylate (EHA, B) are synthesized by copper(0)‐mediated single‐electron transfer living radical polymerization (SET‐LRP) via sequential addition of the two monomers, resulting in different compositions (AB, ABA, BAB, BA), molar masses, and mPEGA/EHA ratios. All polymers show narrow molar mass distributions and molecular weights of 7.7–25.50 kg mol−1, demonstrating precise control over the polymerization and molecular weights through the utilization of SET‐LRP. Kinetic experiments are conducted to investigate the polymerization behavior of mPEGA and EHA in N,N‐dimethylformamide as a rather uncommon solvent for SET‐LRP further underlining a living‐type polymerization. Amphiphilic properties are investigated by critical micelle concentration (CMC) measurements and formation of micelles in water. A reverse relation between mPEGA/EHA ratio and CMC values reveals that an increased hydrophobicity leads to decreased CMC values. The self‐assembly behavior of polymers in water confirms the formation of uniform and stable micelles in water with a size between 12 and 184 nm depending on the composition of the polymers. With increased hydrophilicity, micelle sizes increase as well. In vitro tests of the obtained polymers show excellent biocompatibility even at high concentrations further affirming their suitability for drug delivery applications.

Oxygen‐enhanced superoxido copper‐catalyzed ATRP accelerated by light

AbstractOxygen‐enhanced atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) via the formation of a superoxido copper complex, has recently emerged as a powerful tool for the synthesis of well‐defined polymers. However, relatively long reaction times (&gt;8 h) were required to reach high monomer conversions. Herein, we explore the influence of light in this new polymerization procedure. Under UV irradiation, a significant enhancement over the polymerization rate was observed resulting in near‐quantitative monomer consumption (&gt;90%) within 2 h and narrow molar mass distributions (Đ = 1.07). The rate acceleration was attributed to the fast reduction of the superoxido copper complex to Cu(I)Br under UV irradiation, as confirmed via detailed UV–Vis kinetic experiments. In addition, the induction period was completely eliminated, which is in stark contrast to conventional photo‐ATRP (utilizing Cu(II)Br), thus further highlighting the superiority of the presented system. The synergy of the superoxido complex and UV irradiation enabled the synthesis of low‐dispersity homopolymers with molecular weights ranging from 6000 to 300,000. The high end‐group fidelity of the system was further demonstrated via successful in‐situ chain‐extensions.

Investigation of cationic ring-opening polymerization of 2-oxazolines in the "green" solvent dihydrolevoglucosenone.

For about the last ten years, poly(2-oxazoline)s have attracted significant attention as potential material for biomedical applications in, e.g., drug delivery systems, tissue engineering and more. Commonly, the synthesis of poly(2-oxazoline)s involves problematic organic solvents that are not ideal from a safety and sustainability point of view. In this study, we investigated the cationic ring-opening polymerization of 2-ethyl-2-oxazoline and 2-butyl-2-oxazoline using a variety of initiators in the recently commercialized "green" solvent dihydrolevoglucosenone (DLG). Detailed 1H NMR spectroscopic analysis was performed to understand the influence of the temperature and concentration on the polymerization process. Size exclusion chromatography and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry were performed to determine the molar mass of the resulting polymers. Our work shows clearly that the solvent is not inert under the conditions typically used for the cationic ring-opening polymerization, as evidenced by side products and limited control over the polymerization. However, we could establish that the use of the 2-ethyl-3-methyl-2-oxazolinium triflate salt as an initiator at 60 °C results in polymers with a relatively narrow molar mass distribution and a reasonable control over the polymerization process. Further work will be necessary to establish whether a living polymerization can be achieved by additional adjustments.

Detailed Understanding of Solvent Effects for the Cationic Ring-Opening Polymerization of 2-Ethyl-2-oxazoline

Polymerization of 2-ethyl-2-oxazoline (EtOx) has often been in the spotlight for fundamental studies of poly(2-alkyl/aryl-2-oxazoline)s (PAOx) polymerization, especially initiator screening, solvent screening, and copolymerization trends. In this work, we build on previous observations of solvent effects on the cationic ring-opening polymerization (CROP) of EtOx, with additional experimental observations of previously unreported solvents to expand the explored parameter space. Our objective is to find solvents with the lowest activation energy (Ea) and higher Arrhenius preexponential factor (A), which will allow us to produce narrow molar mass distributions at higher molecular weights, in the least time. To achieve this, we examined the various single factors like Dimroth ET(30) values, the Kamlet–Abraham–Taft (KAT) linear free-energy relationship (LFER) equation(s), and the Catalan LFER equations. Only one of Catalan’s equations sufficiently disentangled dipolarity and polarizability to give a good fit due to contradictory effects. It was found that solvent nucleophilicity, electrophilicity, and polarizability affected the Ea, but not dipolarity. All four factors affected the A. This indicates that the Ea is minimized in solvents that do not solvate ions well (i.e. force ion-pairing), and A was minimized in more dipolar solvents that solvate the polymer chains well. A strongly negative activation entropy (ΔS‡) shows that the propagation reaction is associative. The Catalan LFER allows for the prediction of Ea, A, ΔH‡, and ΔS‡, and the derived kp, across a broad range of solvents.

Highly reliable determination of the interdetector delay volume in SEC-MALS for precise characterization of macromolecules having narrow and broad molar mass distributions

Highly reliable determination of the interdetector delay volume in SEC-MALS for precise characterization of macromolecules having narrow and broad molar mass distributions

Tailor-Made Poly(vinylamine) via Purple LED-Activated RAFT Polymerization of N-vinylformamide.

Photo-iniferter reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (PI-RAFT) polymerization of N-vinylformamide (NVF) is demonstrated by using purple light. PNVFs with predetermined molar masses and narrow molar mass distributions are obtained. High RAFT chain-end fidelity is confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) and electrospray-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-TOF-MS), and chain extension experiment. To demonstrate the potential of this approach, an original poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone)-b-poly(N-vinylformamide) (PVP-b-PNVF) diblock copolymer is synthesized and characterized by aqueous size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation (A4F), and 1 H diffusion-ordered spectroscopy nuclear magnetic resonance (1 H DOSY NMR). Finally, selective hydrolysis of PNVF block to corresponding pH-responsive poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone)-b-poly(N-vinylformamide) (PVP-b-PVAm) is performed.

Aggregation-Induced Emission Poly(meth)acrylates for Photopatterning via Wavelength-Dependent Visible-Light-Regulated Controlled Radical Polymerization in Batch and Flow Conditions.

A robust wavelength-dependent visible-light-regulated reversible-deactivation radical polymerization protocol is first reported for the batch preparation of >20 aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-active polyacrylates and polymethacrylates. The resulting polymers possess narrow molar mass distributions (Đ ≈ 1.09-1.25) and high end-group fidelity at high monomer conversions (mostly >95%). This demonstrated control provides facile access to the in situ generation of complex sequence-defined tetrablock copolymers in one reactor, even while chain extending from less reactive monomers. Polymerizations can be successfully carried out under various irradiation conditions, including using UV, blue, green, and red LED light with more disperse polymers obtained at the longer, less energetic, wavelengths. We observe a red shift and wavelength dependence for the most efficient polymerization using LED illumination in a polymerization reaction. We find that the absorption of the copper(II) complex is not a reliable guide to reaction conditions. Moreover, the reported protocol is readily translated to a flow setup. The prepared AIE-active polymers are demonstrated to exhibit good photopatterning, making them promising materials for applications in advanced optoelectronic devices.

Photoinduced Iron-Catalyzed ATRP of Renewable Monomers in Low-Toxicity Solvents: A Greener Approach.

Producing polymers from renewable resources via more sustainable approaches has become increasingly important. Herein we present the polymerization of monomers obtained from biobased renewable resources, employing an environmentally friendly photoinduced iron-catalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) in low-toxicity solvents. We demonstrate that renewable monomers can be successfully polymerized into sustainable polymers with controlled molecular weights and narrow molar mass distributions (Đ as low as 1.17). This is in contrast to reversible addition–fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization, arguably the most commonly employed method to polymerize biobased monomers, which led to poorer molecular weight control and higher dispersities for these specific monomers (Đs ∼ 1.4). The versatility of our approach was further highlighted by the temporal control demonstrated through intermittent “on/off” cycles, controlled polymerizations of a variety of monomers and chain lengths, oxygen-tolerance, and high end-group fidelity exemplified by the synthesis of block copolymers. This work highlights photoinduced iron-catalyzed ATRP as a powerful tool for the synthesis of renewable polymers.

Influence of Microstructure on the Elution Behavior of Gradient Copolymers in Different Modes of Liquid Interaction Chromatography.

We studied the influence of microstructure on the chromatographic behavior of gradient copolymers with different gradient strengths and block copolymer with completely segregated blocks by using gradient liquid adsorption chromatography (gLAC) and liquid chromatography at critical conditions (LCCC) for one of the copolymer constituents. The copolymers consist of repeating units of poly(propylene oxide) and poly(propylene phthalate) and have comparable average chemical composition and molar mass, and a narrow molar mass distribution to avoid as much as possible the influence of these parameters on the elution behavior of the copolymers. On both reversed stationary phases, the elution volume of gradient copolymers increases with the increasing strength of the gradient. The results indicate that for both modes of liquid interaction chromatography, it is important to consider the effect of microstructure on the elution behavior of the gradient copolymers in addition to the copolymer chemical composition and molar mass in the case of gLAC and the length of the chromatographically visible copolymer constituent in the case of LCCC.