Naqsh-i Rustam Research Articles

Khūrigān: a Recently Discovered Post-Achaemanid Rock-Cut Tomb near Naqsh-e Rostam, Iran

Abstract Near the northwestern-southeastern foothills of the Marvdasht plain in Fars province, lie a range of ancient necropoleis which date from the reign of Darius I, the Achaemenid king and until the first century after the Muslim conquest. The well-known necropoleis of Naqsh-e Rostam and Persepolis have the most complex tombs among them. However, there are other burials in this region, although smaller and simpler or even imitative, which have considerable archeological importance, since they provide information for the social and political understanding of their time of creation, often known as the dark ages. The present study aims to introduce and analyze the structural-chronological features of the rock-cut tomb of Khūrigān, one of the recent discoveries near Naqsh-e Rostam. Regarding the architectural and stylistic characteristics of the tomb and its context, as well as considering its archeological landscape and using historical information, the period from the last century of the Achaemenid reign until the beginning of the Sassanid dynasty is considered for the general chronology of this tomb; however, through applying a more detailed perspective, we can attribute the chronology of this tomb to the first half of the 3rd until the 1st century BC.

A New Inscription from the Tomb of Darius I in Naqsh-i Rustam and the Ceremony of Proskynesis in the Achaemenid Empire

The article is devoted to the investigation of the Achaemenid trilingual inscription, having been published in 2019, from the tomb of the King Darius I (522–486 BC) in Naqsh-i Rustam (DNf). This inscription is the third one relating to the reliefs of the Persian nobles depicted on the façade of the tomb, who were Darius’s loyal supporters. The first two are images and inscriptions of Gobryas and Aspathines (DNc–d), and now the third is of Otanes. The Old Persian version of the new inscription includes a previously unknown verb that describes the action of a nobleman, depicted with a hand at his mouth, in the relief below the inscription. A thorough examination of the controversial aspects of the interpretation of the inscription allows us to conclude that the text refers to the action of a person represented on the relief who addressed King Darius with a gesture of blessing or greeting. The correlation of this textual and visual evidences from the royal tomb in Naqsh-i Rustam with the classical tradition reporting on proskynesis in the Achaemenid Empire allows us to come to conclusion that the new data provide us with the unique information about the ceremony of proskynesis to the King as it was seen by the Persians. The gesture of raising the hand to the mouth is found both in the famous scenes of the royal audience from the apadana of Persepolis, and in other images of the Achaemenid period.

From the Field to the Bookshop. Shaping Persepolis in the Early 18th century

Between the 17th and the 18th centuries three travelers — Jean Chardin, Engel-bert Kaempfer and Cornelis de Bruijn — tried to represent accurately the Iranian monuments of Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam. Social, material, and environmental factors influenced the travelers’ observations on the field as well as the transformation of their notes and sketches in books and engravings designed for the public. In spite of the travelers’ attempts at overcoming the difficulties of fieldwork and reproducing in print the reality of Persepolis, their claims to truth — especially de Bruijn’s — were put in jeopardy not only by the nature of Persepolis as an unstable environment for the development of a historical knowledge, but also by their efforts to crystallize it through mobile material supports.

The Gestures ofproskynēsisin the Achaemenid Empire

SummaryIn October of 2018 a new trilingual Achaemenid inscription from Naqsh-e Rostam was discovered and in March of 2019 a detailed investigation of it with linguistic and historical commentary was published online in ARTA. The inscription includes a previously unknown Old Persian verb, a-f-r-[?]-a-t-i-y, which the first publishers Soheil Delshad and Mojtaba Doroodi read as *ā-fra-yāti(perhaps “he comes forward to”) or *ā-fra-θāti(“he speaks forth to”). They conclude that “an Old Persian verb with the meaning ‘to greet, to bless’ (etc.) seems to be called for”. It is clear that as a result of this discovery we get an Old Persian verb which could refer to an act which the Greek verb προσκυνεῖν may have described relating to the Persians. This new evidence stimulates further discussion about the practice and meaning ofproskynēsisat the royal court in the Achaemenid Empire. My article shows that all literary and pictorial evidences onproskynēsismay be divided into two groups: 1) Greek authors’ information that representsproskynēsismainly as prostration before the King; 2) Persian bas-reliefs that depict the scenes withproskynēsisas a hand-kissing gesture. It is supposed that the previously unknown Old Persian verb (like προσκυνεῖν in Ancient Greek usage) refers not only to specific gestures, but relates to a model of behaviour (‘salutation’, ‘obeisance’, ‘greeting’, ‘worship’, ‘respect’ etc.). It is argued that Achaemenid officials performedproskynēsisbefore the King as hand-kissing, while the rest of the people bowed down, kneeled or prostrated. Exceptions were made only for members of the royal family who did not performproskynēsis, but kissed the King and got a kiss from him.

Characterization of Gray-Black Stone Pillars of the Achaemenid Palace of Charkhab Borazja

Characterization of Gray-Black Stone Pillars of the Achaemenid Palace of Charkhab Borazja

And man created God? Kings, priests and gods on Sasanian investiture reliefs

An inscription on the Naqsh-i Rustam I rock relief identifies the two protagonists in the investiture scene as Ardashir I and Ahura Mazda. All investing authorities on the royal Sasanian reliefs are therefore commonly identified as Ahura Mazda. In view of conflicting historic information and unexplained variations in the iconography of “Ahura Mazda”, a re-interpretation of the investiture reliefs is made. The inscription on Ahura Mazda’s horse at Naqsh-i Rustam appears to have been added at the end of Ardashir’s reign or early in Shapur I’s reign and the earliest reliefs are now considered to depict an investiture by a priest, instead of by Ahura Mazda. Once the inscription had been added to the Naqsh-i Rustam I rock relief, it changed from an investiture by a priest to one by a god, Ahura Mazda. Iconographic details that conflicted with this transformation (such as the barsum, attendant and possibly the “royal” tamga) were left out of the divine image in later representations of the investiture on horseback. The late Sasanian Taq-i Bustan III investiture on foot, up to now considered to be the investiture of Khusrow II by Ahura Mazda and Anahita, is equally interpreted as an investiture by clergy, in this case by representatives of the cults of these two gods, rather than by the gods themselves.

Ursula Weber. Zu den Feldbildnisse des Königs Narseh

Some scholars have interpreted the rock relief of King Narseh (293-302 AD) at Naqsh-i Rustam as a scene of Anahita investing King Narseh. In fact, this relief portrays the king with his family and courtiers. Weber’s detailed analysis of the relief discusses various theories about the identities of the portrayed figures. She points out that Narseh already had an investiture relief, the one usurped from Bahram I at Bishapur. Recent numismatic studies of Alram demonstrate that the royal crown be...

Datacja reliefów Szapura I. Zarys problematyki

It is assumed that eight Sasanid reliefs were carved during the reign of Shapur I in 242 – 272. There is no doubt that seven of them: NRb I, NRb IV, NRm VI, VŠ I, VŠ II, VŠ III as well as that one from Rag-i Bibi depict the ruler. Identifi cation of the king in relief from Darabgerd is subject of further disputes. What enforces dating reliefs at Naqsh-i Rajab to 242 – 244 is lack of portrayals of enemies defeated by Shapur. Starting point for more precise dating of socalled triumph reliefs is identifi cation of persons appearing in them. There is no doubt about the relief at Naqsh-i Rustam. On the basis of ŠKZ text one ought to assume that it shows Philip the Arab and Valerian thus it should be dated to 260 – 272. The problem is over dating of reliefs at Bishapur. Damages of VŠ I relief allow only identifi cation of Philip the Arab and Gordian III that is why dating can be precised to solely 244-272. Lively discussion elicit another two reliefs of Shapur I at Bishapur . One of the most interesting hypotheses seems to be thesis advanced by B. Overlaet that Uranius Antoninus is the fi gure standing next to the king. Recognision of black stone of Emesa in VŠ III relief maintains the thesis. As far as stone identifi cation seems to be sure one should deliberate if Shapur I would place in the relief a person recognized by him as not equal to himself. It is unlikely from propaganda viewpoint. In that case we can refer to the king relation to Septimius Odenathus with whom he even did not start dialog. If we interpret the arrangement of relief we have to point that its composition refers to sculptures from Apadana in Persepolis. In the context of military activities and devastations of Syria by Persian forces one should not be astonished at symbolic representation of bringing gifts Syrians. For late dating of triumph reliefs indicates their asymmetrical composition which is untypical in case of Persian sculptures. One should recognize that they could be carved by Roman craftmen deported by Shapur I during wars with western neighbour. Anyway it does not help in more precise dating because fi rst deportation took place already in 253. Taking Valerian as prisoner seems to be the most important success of Shapur I. The emperor undoubtly was residing at Bishapur so in a natural way he was put in both VŠ II and VŠ III reliefs what allows their dating to 260-272. The above mentioned speculations do not make easier dating of the most controversial relief from Darabgerd what will be undoubtly subject of future disputes.

Hidden in plain sight: the Hebrew inscription on Ardashir I's rock relief at Naqsh-i Rustam

The relief of Ardashir I at Naqsh-i Rustam is the first Sasanian investiture scene with the two protagonists on horseback. They are identified by a prominent trilingual inscription on the horses as Ardashir I and Ahura Mazda. Another inscription remained up to now unobserved, however. It is chiselled on the folds of Ahura Mazda’s tunic.

Altar Shrines and Fire Altars?

Buildings with two doors and horn-shaped battlements figure on the reverse of early frataraka coins of the 1 st. half of the 2 nd. cent. BCE (first coins); similar buildings but with two large stepped crenellations on the comers are shown on the coins of the second phase. In a third phase fire altars were represented. Contrary to other scholars, the authors do not believe that the building shown on the early coins is closely related to the tower-like monuments at Pasargadae and Naqsh-i Rustam. It is suggested that the monument shown on the coins had a fire altar inside and that its concept is comparable to Greek and Roman sanctuaries, such as the Ara Pacis at Rome.

Two Rock Carvings at Naqsh-i Rustam

Two Rock Carvings at Naqsh-i Rustam