Nandinia Research Articles

First videos of endemic Zanzibar Servaline Genet Genetta servalina archeri, African Palm Civet Nandinia binotata (Mammalia: Carnivora: Viverridae) and other small carnivores on Unguja Island, Tanzania

The faunal diversity of the densely populated island of Unguja, Zanzibar archipelago, Tanzania, includes several endemic mammals. Camera-trapping in Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park and Kiwengwa–Pongwe Forest Reserve in September 2017 captured the first video footage of the Zanzibar Servaline Genet Genetta servalina archeri, an endemic subspecies first formally described in 1998. Other native small carnivores were also recorded on video for the first time during this survey, including the African Palm Civet Nandinia binotata, which was first documented in print as present in Unguja in 2004. Also camera-trapped in 2017 were the Zanzibar Slender Mongoose Herpestes sanguineus rufescens and the Zanzibar Bushy-tailed Mongoose Bdeogale crassicauda tenuis. Follow-up camera-trapping in Jozani-Chwaka Bay National Park in August 2018 captured additional video of the Zanzibar Servaline Genet and the African Palm Civet. No images were obtained of the African Civet Civettictis civetta, or of the two introduced species—the Banded Mongoose Mungos mungo and the Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica—in either year. As the remaining natural habitat in Zanzibar shrinks in size and becomes fragmented, it is increasingly urgent to document the archipelago’s carnivores and other fauna, so that sound conservation measures can be implemented.

Maximising camera trap data: Using attractants to improve detection of elusive species in multi-species surveys.

Camera traps are a key tool in ecological studies, and are increasingly being used to understand entire communities. However, robust inferences continue to be hampered by low detection of rare and elusive species. Attractants can be used to increase detection rates, but may also alter behaviour, and little research has evaluated short-term, localized response to the presence of attractants. We conducted three camera trap surveys in Kibale National Park, Uganda, using food baits and scent lures (“attractants”) at each camera station to entice small carnivores to pass in front of camera stations. To examine the interrelationship between scavenging and response to attractants, we also placed camera traps at five food refuse pits. We modelled the effect of attractant and duration of trap placement on the detection probability of small carnivores and selected African golden cat Caracal aurata prey items. We examine transient site response of each species, by comparing our observed likelihood of detection in each 24 h period from 1–7 d following refreshing of attractants to randomly generated capture histories. African civet Civettictis civetta, rusty-spotted genet Genetta maculata, African palm civet Nandinia binotata, and marsh mongoose Atilax paludinosus detection probabilities were highest and Weyns’s red duiker Cephalophus wenysi detection probability was lowest immediately after attractants were placed. Within 24 h after attractant was placed, rusty-spotted genet and African palm civet were more likely to be detected and African golden cat, red duiker, and blue duiker Philantomba monticola were less likely to be detected. Our results suggest that attractants can increase detection of small-bodied species and include some arboreal species in terrestrial camera trap sampling. However, attractants may also alter short-term visitation rates of some species, with potentially cascading effects on others. Community level and intraguild interaction studies should control for the potentially confounding effects of attractants on spatial activity patterns.

A New Species ofFelicola(Phthiraptera: Ischnocera: Trichodectidae) from the Forest Giant Pouched Rat (Cricetomys emini) in Cameroon, Africa and a Redescription ofFelicola hopkinsiBedford, 1936

Of the 56 described species in the genus Felicola, 55 are parasites of carnivores and 1 has been described from a primate (Perez and Palma, 2001). To date, no representative of this genus has been reported from a rodent. Such high host specificity is not uncommon among chewing lice, especially the trichodectids. As pointed out by Hopkins (1949), “each species of Trichodectidae occurs normally as a rule, on only one species of host, but occasionally on several hosts which, though very closely related, are not conspecific.” In the present study, 1 of 15 Forest Giant Pouched Rats (Cricetomys emini Wrough ton 1910) from Bawa, West Province, Cameroon (approx. 5o20'N, 9o 54'E), purchased as food items by the first author during May 2007, was infested with 10 chewing lice, 6 females (5 adults and 1 juvenile) and 4 males (2 adults and 2 juveniles). This region constitutes a montane tropical forest lying along a volcanic ridge in western Cameroon. Tchuinkam et al. (2010) described the ge og raphy and climate of the region. Exceedingly little information is available on the ectoparasitic fauna of C. emini. Cook and Richardson (2010) reported on epifaunistic earwigs associated with these individual rats. No other ectoparasites were observed on the rat infested with chewing lice. Lice were collected with watchmaker’s forceps and fixed in 70% ethanol. Soft tissues were dissolved with a 20% aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide. Speci mens were stained with acid fuchsin, cleared in clove oil, and mounted in Canada balsam as described by Palma (1978). Preliminary study revealed the lice to represent a previously undescribed species in the genus Felicola. Comparison to descriptions of all previously described species of Felicola (Price, 2003) re vealed the new species to be most morphologically similar to Felicola hopkinsi Bedford, 1936. The original description of F. hopkinsi was based on 2 individuals, a male and female collected from an African Palm Civet (Nandinia binotata arborea) in Kampala, Uganda in 1933. Although Bedford (1936) did not reference deposition of type specimens in his original description of F. hopkinsi, specimens designated in writing on the original slide labels as the male holotype and

The complete mitochondrial genome of the African palm civet, Nandinia binotata, the only representative of the family Nandiniidae (Mammalia, Carnivora)

Here I report the complete mitochondrial genome of the African palm civet, (Nandinia binotata) as sequenced from overlapping PCR products. The genome is 17,103 bp in length and contains the 37 genes found in a typical mammalian genome: 13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes and 2 ribosomal RNA genes. The control region of N. binotata includes both RS2 and RS3 tandem repeats. The overall base composition on the L-strand is A: 33.6%, C: 27.3%, G: 13.0%, and T: 26.1%.

On the Cranial Osteology of the African Palm Civet,Nandinia binotata(Gray, 1830) (Mammalia, Carnivora, Feliformia)

The external and endocranial surfaces of the skull of the African palm civet, Nandinia binotata (Gray, 1830), are described and illustrated in detail based on 30 specimens (from Carnegie Museum of Natural History and American Museum of Natural History). With the inclusion of a newborn and six juveniles with deciduous dentitions, a reasonable ontogenetic series is represented. The bone-by-bone descriptions are primarily based on the condition in an adult female and the newborn with consideration of variation across the sample. The principal cranial foramina are treated in a glossary, and the hyoid apparatus and larynx are described from a single specimen. The sample exhibits a remarkable degree of variability in cranial features that are often used as different states of characters in phylogenetic analysis (e.g., number and position of palatal foramina, the orbital mosaic, and composition of the lacrimal foramen).Nandinia binotata, the only taxon in the Nandiniidae, has been identified as the most basal extant feliform in recent phylogenetic analyses of both molecular and morphological data. It has long been recognized that its ear region with its uninflated auditory bulla exhibits a primitive level of organization. To assess the primitive nature of the skull of N. binotata, comparisons are made with three extant carnivorans, the felid Felis catus Linnaeus, 1758, the viverrid Genetta genetta (Linnaeus, 1758), and the canid Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758. Of the three, N. binotata shares numerous resemblances across the skull with G. genetta, which accounts for its historical inclusion in the Viverridae. Whereas aspects of the ear region of N. binotata are clearly unique among extant carnivorans, the rest of its skull is not similarly so.

Updating the evolutionary history of Carnivora (Mammalia): a new species-level supertree complete with divergence time estimates.

BackgroundAlthough it has proven to be an important foundation for investigations of carnivoran ecology, biology and evolution, the complete species-level supertree for Carnivora of Bininda-Emonds et al. is showing its age. Additional, largely molecular sequence data are now available for many species and the advancement of computer technology means that many of the limitations of the original analysis can now be avoided. We therefore sought to provide an updated estimate of the phylogenetic relationships within all extant Carnivora, again using supertree analysis to be able to analyze as much of the global phylogenetic database for the group as possible.ResultsIn total, 188 source trees were combined, representing 114 trees from the literature together with 74 newly constructed gene trees derived from nearly 45,000 bp of sequence data from GenBank. The greater availability of sequence data means that the new supertree is almost completely resolved and also better reflects current phylogenetic opinion (for example, supporting a monophyletic Mephitidae, Eupleridae and Prionodontidae; placing Nandinia binotata as sister to the remaining Feliformia). Following an initial rapid radiation, diversification rate analyses indicate a downturn in the net speciation rate within the past three million years as well as a possible increase some 18.0 million years ago; numerous diversification rate shifts within the order were also identified.ConclusionsTogether, the two carnivore supertrees remain the only complete phylogenetic estimates for all extant species and the new supertree, like the old one, will form a key tool in helping us to further understand the biology of this charismatic group of carnivores.

Updating the evolutionary history of Carnivora (Mammalia): a new species-level supertree complete with divergence time estimates

Although it has proven to be an important foundation for investigations of carnivoran ecology, biology and evolution, the complete species-level supertree for Carnivora of Bininda-Emonds et al. is showing its age. Additional, largely molecular sequence data are now available for many species and the advancement of computer technology means that many of the limitations of the original analysis can now be avoided. We therefore sought to provide an updated estimate of the phylogenetic relationships within all extant Carnivora, again using supertree analysis to be able to analyze as much of the global phylogenetic database for the group as possible. In total, 188 source trees were combined, representing 114 trees from the literature together with 74 newly constructed gene trees derived from nearly 45,000 bp of sequence data from GenBank. The greater availability of sequence data means that the new supertree is almost completely resolved and also better reflects current phylogenetic opinion (for example, supporting a monophyletic Mephitidae, Eupleridae and Prionodontidae; placing Nandinia binotata as sister to the remaining Feliformia). Following an initial rapid radiation, diversification rate analyses indicate a downturn in the net speciation rate within the past three million years as well as a possible increase some 18.0 million years ago; numerous diversification rate shifts within the order were also identified. Together, the two carnivore supertrees remain the only complete phylogenetic estimates for all extant species and the new supertree, like the old one, will form a key tool in helping us to further understand the biology of this charismatic group of carnivores.

Influence of habitat and seasonal variation on wild mammal diversity and distribution with special reference to the Trypanosoma brucei gambiense host-reservoir in Bipindi (Cameroon)

To evaluate the role of wildlife in the resurgence and perenisation of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), we investigated the influence of habitat and seasonal variations on the diversity and spatial distribution of wild mammals, with special reference to those recognised as potential host-reservoirs of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Bipindi (southwestern Cameroon). To achieve this, we carried out transect surveys in four habitat types over two years. A total of 31 mammal species were recorded, of which 14 occurred in the undisturbed forest, 9 in cocoa plantations, 11 in farmlands and 11 in village-adjacent gallery forests. Among them, six species ( Cephalophus monticola, Cephalophus dorsalis, Atherurus africanus, Cricetomys emini, Nandinia binotata and Cercopithecus nictitans), known as reservoir hosts of T. b. gambiense, occurred in all kinds of habitats suitable or unsuited to Glossina palpalis palpalis and in all seasons. These species are the most involved in the transmission cycle (human being/tsetse flies/wild animals). Cercopithecus cephus, Miopithecus talapoin and Heliosciurus rufobrachium host Trypanosoma brucei spp.; however, only C. cephus does not occur permanently in the suitable habitat of G. palpalis palpalis. In general, some species ( C. monticola, Tragelaphus spekei and C. emini) showed a slight density increase from the long dry to the heavy rainy season within the undisturbed and farmland habitats, and a slight decrease within cocoa plantations and village-adjacent forests in the same period. The density of A. africanus increased greatly from the long dry season to the heavy rainy season in the undisturbed forest while, the density of primates in this habitat decreased slightly from the long dry season to the heavy rainy season. These variations indicate a permanent movement of wild mammal reservoir or feeding hosts from one biotope to another over the seasons. Thryonomys swinderianus needs to be investigated because it occurs permanently in the suitable habitat of G. palpalis palpalis and Potamochoerus porcus for its genetic similarities to domestic pigs, favourable feeding hosts of G. palpalis palpalis.

The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis

The present study was undertaken in order to effect a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the order Pholidota, examining seven of the eight currently recognized extant species (absent is Manis culionensis, formerly recognized as a subspecies of Manis javanica) and nearly all the well-known fossil taxa, and employing a wide range of osteological characters from the entire skeleton. In addition, the relationship of pangolins to several putative early Tertiary relatives, including palaeanodonts and the enigmatic “edentate” Eurotamandua joresi, were investigated. The goal of the study was to improve understanding of the systematics and the biogeographic and evolutionary history of the pangolins. A computer-based cladistic analysis of phylogenetic relationships among seven extant species of pangolins, five extinct pangolin species (including all but one of the well-preserved taxa), as well as Eurotamandua and two genera of metacheiromyid palaeanodonts, Palaeanodon and Metacheiromys, was performed based upon 395 osteological characteristics of the skull and postcranial skeleton. Characters were polarized via comparison to the following successive outgroups: the basal feliform carnivoran Nandinia binotata and the hedgehog Erinaceus sp., a eulipotyphlan laursiatherian placental. A revised classification is presented based on the results of the analysis. The results support the monophyly of Pholidota and Palaeanodonta by providing new anatomical characters that can serve to diagnose a pangolin/palaeanodont clade, termed here Pholidotamorpha. Pholidota is defined so as to include all living and fossil pangolins, including all three taxa of middle Eocene “edentates” from the Messel fauna of Germany, among them Eurotamandua joresi. The results do not support the monophyly of the remaining two Messel “edentates” originally placed in the same genus Eomanis, which is restricted to the type species Eomanis waldi. Euromanis, new genus, is named with Eomanis krebsi Storch and Martin, 1994, as the type species, to form a new combination Euromanis krebsi (Storch and Martin, 1994). The analysis strongly supports the monophyly of a crown clade of pangolins diagnosed by many anatomical synapomorphies, the family Manidae. This crown clade is sister to the family Patriomanidae, which includes two Tertiary taxa, Patriomanis americana and Cryptomanis gobiensis, within the superfamily Manoidea. The relationship of the Tertiary European pangolin Necromanis to these two families is unresolved. Within Manidae, the extant species are divided into three well-supported, monophyletic genera, Manis for the Asian pangolins, Smutsia for the African ground pangolins, and Phataginus for the African tree pangolins. The latter two form a monophyletic African assemblage, the subfamily Smutsiinae. The biogeographic implications of this phylogeny are examined. A European origin for Pholidota is strongly indicated. The fossil record of pangolins would seem to support a European origin for the modern forms, with subsequent dispersal into sub-Saharan African and then to southern Asia, and the phylogeny produced in this analysis is consistent with such a scenario.

Proximity in a Ghanaian savanna: Human reactions to the African palm civet Nandinia binotata

Understanding human reactions to wildlife, including the differing reactions of different groups to different species, is important given that expanding human population and settlements increasingly result in natural habitat loss or modification and, consequently, wildlife adaptation and encroachment into cleared and created human spaces such as wastelands and farms. This paper examines the importance of gender and age in the responses of rural coastal villagers in Ghana to the presence of African palm civets. Social data gathered from 450 residents in six villages indicated that women and young people were significantly more fearful of civets, seeing them as village marauders, food thieves and livestock predators. Women were also more likely to carry sticks and beat thick vegetation to dispel civets out of concern for the safety of their children and homes. These findings may inform both rural development and conservation debates and policies.

Phylogenetic analysis reveals the presence of the Trypanosoma cruzi clade in African terrestrial mammals

Despite the impact of some trypanosome species on human and livestock health, the full diversity of trypanosomes in Africa is poorly understood. A recent study examined the prevalence of trypanosomes among a wide variety of wild vertebrates in Cameroon using species-specific PCR tests, but six trypanosome isolates remained unidentified. Here they have been re-examined using fluorescent fragment length barcoding (FFLB) and phylogenetic analysis of glycosomal glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase gGAPDH and 18S ribosomal RNA (rDNA) genes. Isolates from a monkey ( Cercopithecus nictitans) and a palm civet ( Nandinia binotata) belonged to the Trypanosoma cruzi clade, known previously only from New World and Australian terrestrial mammals, and bats from Africa, Europe and South America. Of the four other isolates, three from antelope were identified as Trypanosoma theileri, and one from a crocodile as T. grayi. This is the first report of trypanosomes of the T. cruzi clade in African terrestrial mammals and expands the clade's known global distribution in terrestrial mammals. Previously it has been hypothesized that African and New World trypanosomes diverged after continental separation, dating the divergence to around 100 million years ago. The new evidence instead suggests that intercontinental transfer occurred well after this, possibly via bats or rodents, allowing these trypanosomes to establish and evolve in African terrestrial mammals, and questioning the validity of calibrating trypanosome molecular trees using continental separation.

The Ancestral Carnivore Karyotype (2n = 38) Lives Today in Ringtails

Chromosome painting was used to investigate the conservation of high-resolution longitudinal 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI)/G bands in Carnivore chromosomes. Cat (Felis catus) and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) painting probes were hybridized to the ringtail (Bassaricus astutus), dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula), and Malagasy civet (Fossa fossa) to identify homologous chromosome elements. The patterns of chromosome segment homology among Carnivore species allowed us to reconstruct and propose the disposition of a high-resolution banded ancestral carnivore karyotype (ACK). Three bi-armed chromosomes consistently found among Caniformia species are represented as 6 homologous acrocentric chromosomes among Feliformia species of Carnivora. However, reexamination of the most basal of Feliformia species, the African palm civet Nandinia, revealed the presence of the 3 heretofore Caniformia bi-armed chromosomes. Because these 3 bi-armed chromosomes are found in both Caniformia and Feliformia lineages, they are presumed ancestral for all Carnivora, suggesting that the ACK chromosome number would be 38, rather than the previously supposed 42. Banded chromosomes of the ACK are used to evaluate the consistency between recently determined molecular phylogenetic relationships and postulated cytogenetic dynamics in the same Carnivore species.

Trichinella britovi etiological agent of sylvatic trichinellosis in the Republic of Guinea (West Africa) and a re-evaluation of geographical distribution for encapsulated species in Africa

In West Africa, Trichinella infection was documented in humans and animals from Senegal in the 1960s, and the biological characters of one isolate showed a lower infectivity to domestic pigs and rodents when compared with that of a Trichinella spiralis pig isolate from Europe. To identify the Trichinella species present in West Africa, a survey was conducted in a total of 160 wild animals in the Republic of Guinea. Three Viverridae, one true civet ( Viverra civetta) and two African palm civets ( Nandinia binotata) from the Fouta Djallon Massif, Pilimini Subprefecture, were found positive by artificial digestion of muscle samples. Trichinella larvae from these three viverrids were identified as Trichinella britovi and no difference was detected in three examined sequences from these African isolates and the reference strain of T. britovi from Europe, indicating common ancestry, an historically continuous geographic distribution, and recent isolation for African and European populations. The detection of T. britovi in West Africa modifies our knowledge about the distribution of encapsulated species of Trichinella in Africa. Thus, Trichinella nelsoni is now considered to have a distribution limited to the Eastern part of the Afrotropical region from Kenya to South Africa. This provides a plausible explanation for the presence of Trichinella T8 in Namibia and South Africa, and further suggests that T. britovi could be the Trichinella species circulating among wild animals of Northern Africa.

Identification of trypanosomes in wild animals from southern Cameroon using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

One possible explanation of the maintenance of many historical foci of sleeping sickness in Central Africa could be the existence of a wild animal reservoir. In this study, PCR was used to detect the different trypanosome species present in wild animal captured by hunters in the southern forest belt of Cameroon (Bipindi). Trypanosomes were also detected by a parasitological method (Quantitative buffy coat: QBC). Parasite could not be isolated in culture medium (Kit for in vitro isolation: KIVI). Specific primers of T. brucei s.l., T. congolense forest type, T. congolense savannah type, T. vivax, T. simiae and T. b. gambiense group 1 were used to identify parasites in the blood of 164 animals belonging to 24 different species including ungulates, rodents, pangolins, carnivores, reptiles and primates. Of the 24 studied species, eight were carrying T. b. gambiense group 1. Those parasites pathogenic to man were found in monkeys (Cercocebus torquatus and Cercopithecus nictitans), in ungulates (Cephalophus dorsalis and C. monticola), in carnivores (Nandinia binotata and Genetta servalina) and in rodents (Cricetomys gambianus and Atherurus africanus). 13 species (54%) were carrying T. brucei s.l. identified as non-gambiense group 1.

The genus Stenoplesictis Filhol (Mammalia, Carnivora) from the Oligocene deposits of the Phosphorites of Quercy, France

ABSTRACT The discovery of new remains assigned to Stenoplesictis (Feliformia, Carnivora) in the deposit of Quercy (France) allows a more precise study of this genus. S. cayluxi Filhol, 1880 and S. minor Filhol, 1882, two species previously described by Filhol, are synonymized. A new species, Stenoplesictis crocheti, is described. It is represented by dental remains and two well preserved skulls. The basicranial anatomy is studied with special focus on the auditory region. Stenoplesictis may be a primitive feloid, like the extant Nandinia binotata. Some other material recently assigned to the genus is discussed. The African and Asian material differs from the European specimens, especially the morphology of the teeth and is excluded from the genus. Therefore, an Asian origin of the genus can not be demonstrated and the presence of Stenoplesictis in Asia remains to be confirmed.

Phylogeny of the Carnivora (Mammalia): Congruence vs Incompatibility among Multiple Data Sets

The purpose of this study was to determine the higher-level phylogenetic relationships among Carnivora, using a conditional data combination (CDC) approach to analyzing multiple data sets. New nucleotide sequences (851 base pairs from intron I of the transthyretin gene) among 22 representatives of the 11 families of Carnivora were generated and analyzed in concert with, and comparison to, other mitochondrial and morphological character data. Conditional data combination analyses of the four independent data sets (transthyretin intron I, cytochromeb,partial 12S rRNA, and morphology) indicate that the phylogenetic results derived from each generally agree, with two exceptions. The first exception, signal heterogeneity in comparisons involving transthyretin and morphology, provides an example where phylogenetic conclusions drawn from total evidence analyses may differ from conclusions drawn from CDC analyses. The second exception demonstrates that while a CDC method may reject the null hypothesis of homogeneity for a particular partition, including that partition in combined analyses, may nevertheless provide an overall increase in phylogenetic signal, in terms of nodal support for most associations, without altering the topology derived from the combined homogeneous data partitions. Phylogenetic reconstruction among the feliform families supports a sister-group relationship between the hyaenas (Hyaenidae) and mongooses (Herpestidae) and places the African palm civet (Nandinia) as basal to all other living Feliformia. Among the caniform families, CDC analyses strongly support the previously enigmatic red panda (Ailurus) as a monotypic lineage that is sister to Musteloideasensu stricto(mustelids plus procyonids), in addition to pinniped monophyly and a sister-group relationship between the walrus and sea lions.

Relationship of Nandinia binotata (Gray) to the Superfamily Feloidea (Mammalia, Carnivora)

The phylogenetic relationship between Nandinia binotata and Feloidea is analysed by the cladistic method, based on a literature review of osteological characters used in systematic works on carnivores for more than a century. The reduced or lost postglenoid foramen is a synapomorphy that define Nandinia and Feloidea as a monophyletic group. Nandinia does not have an ectotympanic septum in the bulla nor a paroccipital process nested with the posterior wall of the bulla, which are autapomorphies for the Feloidea. Thus it is hypothesized that Nandinia binotata has a sister‐group relation to Feloidea. The cartilaginous caudal entotympanic is an autapomorphy for Nandinia.

Ecologie et vie sociale de Nandinia binotata (Carnivores, Viverrides) : comparaison avec les prosimiens sympatriques du Gabon

The African palm civet Nandinia binotata is an arboreal Viverrine, nocturnal in habits, whose diet consists of both fruits and insects. The species was studied in North-east Gabon from 1965 to 1973, in the same 6 km² area where we have observed five sympatric species of nocturnal prosimians (Charles-Dominique, 1971-1978). Forty five individuals were caught and individually marked from 1971 to 1973. Twenty-eight of them were equipped with a radio transmitter and their movements followed in the subsequent months. The African palm civet lives in various forest types, where it is found mainly between 10 to 30 m above ground level. This civet mainly uses large branches and lianas (1 to 35 cm in diameter), whereas the three species of prosimians sharing the same kind of habitat prefer smaller branches, more vertically oriented. The cornified areas of the feet are used to grasp the large vertical branches, especially when the animal is climbing down. The African palm civet very rarely ventures on the ground. Nandinia binotata spends the day time sleeping on a fork, a large branch or in a bundle of lianas. Weakened or injured individuals tend to be active both by day and by night, spending more time on the ground. Fruits are the staple food of this Viverrine, on average forming 80 % of the stomach contents. However seven of the twenty-two stomachs examined contained small quantities of prey, such as rodents, bird eggs, large beetles or caterpillars. Compared to other sympatric Carnivores, the population density of the African palm civet is high (about 5/km2 )and its biomass in the study area is close to that of frugivorous prosimians. Three age categories are recognized in the population, based upon body weights and dental characteristics. Sexual maturity occurs during the third year of life. Adult females territories (averaging 45 ha) are contiguous. Some of their border areas are scent-marked with the perineal gland secretion of the animal, as are fruiting trees within the territories. Adult females do not tolerate trespassing of territorial boundaries by other adult females, but do tolerate immature females (which are often their own daughters) at least as long as they are sexually immature. The situation is more complex among males. Dominant adult males hold large territories (about 100 ha on the average) which overlap a number of female territories. Trespassing by other large adult males is not tolerated, whereas smaller adult males are allowed to stay in the territory, but not to have access to females. Young males leave their mothers’ territories as soon as they are weaned. On the whole, body size, size of the testes and development of the perineal gland are correlated with social hierarchy among males. Territorial fights between males or between females may be serious affairs ; one of the protagonists can die. Mating takes place during the visits paid by the dominant adult male to the females settled within the limits of its own territory. At that time loud calls are exchanged between adults of both sexes. The ecology and social structure of the African palm civet is compared with those of sympatric nocturnal prosimians. Fifteen species of nocturnal and arboreal mammals share the same mixed diet of fruits and insects in the study area. However, the pressure of competition is lessened by differences in body-size. The similarities between the social life of the Palm civet and that of the nocturnal prosimians are emphasized.

The functional anatomy of the hindlimb of some African Viverridae (Carnivora).

The functional anatomy of the hindlimb of 12 species of viverrids was studied with relation to locomotion. The animals were allocated to primary locomotor categories on the basis of their anatomy and locomotion. The climbing, arboreal walking category (Nandinia binotata) is characterized by a small sacroiliac articulation, the iliopsoas inserts onto a medially located lesser trochanter and the femoral condyles are not posteriorly placed. The hindfoot is plantigrade and its structure permits considerable movement. The pads are soft and the claws retractile. Representatives of the arboreal and terrestrial walking and jumping category (Genetta genetta, G. servalina, G. tigrina) have a plantigrade forefoot and digitigrade hindfoot. The lesser trochanter is more posteriorly placed than in the climbing category. A previously undescribed muscle, the caudofemoralis profundus extends from several anterior caudal vertebrae to the femur. The tibio-astragular joint restricts supination of the foot. There is little mediolateral movement in the digitidgrade foot. The claws are retractile. In the general terrestrial walking and scrambling group (Helogale parvula, Mungos mungo, Atilax paludinosus, Bdeogale crassicauda, Herpestes ichneumon, H. sanguineus) the animals have essentially similar hindlimbs except for size differences and modifications to the feet. Helogale and Mungos have large medial epicondyles on the humerus and large terminal phalanges. Bdeogale has a vestigial first metatarsal, while Atilax can splay its digits. In all species the distal phalanges are non-retractile. The trotting category (Civettictis civetta, Ichneumia albicauda) is characterized by longer epipodials and metapodials and a more proximal position of muscle bellies. Most of the adaptations minimize rotation, adduction and abduction of the leg and supination of the foot. The metatarsals are closely adjoined and the distal phalanx is stout and non-retractile. There appear to be two levels of locomotory adaptation. Major adaptations affect the whole appendicular skeleton and are used to assign animals to primary locomotor categories. Minor adaptations occur mainly in the foot and indicate the more specific habits of the animal.