Letter Naming Research Articles

Parents’ Literacy Beliefs, Home Literacy Activities, and Children’s Early Literacy Skills: Stability and Progress Approaching First Grade

This study explores the stability and progress of parents’ literacy beliefs and home literacy activities and their relationships with their children’s early literacy skills in their last year of preschool. Participants were 50 preschool children (M = 61.44 months) and their parents. Data collection sessions occurred in the family home in the fall and spring, with six months between them. At each time point, parents completed questionnaires regarding their beliefs relating to children’s literacy development, parents’ role in supporting literacy development, and the frequency of home literacy activities. We also evaluated the children’s early literacy skills (letter names, letter sounds, word writing, phonological awareness, and motivation for literacy activities). Results revealed overall stability in parents’ beliefs between the two time points, an increase in home literacy activities, progress in children’s early literacy skills, and greater motivation to engage in early literacy activities. We found a positive relationship between parents’ beliefs and home literacy activities in the fall with their children’s early literacy skills in the spring. Further, the progress in parents’ literacy beliefs between the fall and the spring correlated with their children’s progress in early literacy skills, controlling for parents’ education and children’s age. This study highlights the importance of promoting parents’ literacy beliefs and home literacy activities.

Game Edukasi Pengenalan Hewan Endemik Pulau Kalimantan Berbasis Android Menggunakan Construct 2

The purpose of this research is to make an Android-based educational game to introduce endemic animals to the island of Borneo using Construct 2, the results of which can be useful for the community to increase knowledge about endemic animals on the island of Borneo. This educational game has a game of arranging animal name letters and multiple choice questions which are expected to hone the user's memory of endemic animals on the island of Borneo. The method used in this research is the Multimedia Development Life Cycle (MDLC) method are concept, design, material collecting, assembly, testing, and distribution. In this study, Black Box Testing was carried out and the result was that the game system ran well and its functionality could work smoothly. Based on the results of the questionnaire which was filled in by 30 respondents, the Endemic Animals of Kalimantan game was in the interval of strongly agreeing with the questionnaire and application category with a percentage of 85.42%, which means that the Endemic Animals of Kalimantan game is in demand by the public.

Understanding the Role of Eye Movement Pattern and Consistency in Isolated English Word Reading Through Hidden Markov Modeling.

In isolated English word reading, readers have the optimal performance when their initial eye fixation is directed to the area between the beginning and word center, that is, the optimal viewing position (OVP). Thus, how well readers voluntarily direct eye gaze to this OVP during isolated word reading may be associated with reading performance. Using Eye Movement analysis with Hidden Markov Models, we discovered two representative eye movement patterns during lexical decisions through clustering, which focused at the OVP and the word center, respectively. Higher eye movement similarity to the OVP-focusing pattern predicted faster lexical decision time in addition to cognitive abilities and lexical knowledge. However, the OVP-focusing pattern was associated with longer isolated single letter naming time, suggesting conflicting visual abilities required for identifying isolated letters and multi-letter words. In contrast, in both word and pseudoword naming, although clustering did not reveal an OVP-focused pattern, higher consistency of the first fixation as measured in entropy predicted faster naming time in addition to cognitive abilities and lexical knowledge. Thus, developing a consistent eye movement pattern focusing on the OVP is essential for word orthographic processing and reading fluency. This finding has important implications for interventions for reading difficulties.

Dysfunction of the magnocellular subdivision of the visual thalamus in developmental dyslexia.

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is one of the most common learning disorders, affecting millions of children and adults worldwide. To date, scientific research has attempted to explain DD primarily based on pathophysiological alterations in the cerebral cortex. In contrast, several decades ago, pioneering research on five post-mortem human brains suggested that a core characteristic of DD might be morphological alterations in a specific subdivision of the visual thalamus - the magnocellular LGN (M-LGN). However, due to considerable technical challenges in investigating LGN subdivisions non-invasively in humans, this finding was never confirmed in-vivo, and its relevance for DD pathology remained highly controversial. Here, we leveraged recent advances in high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at high field strength (7 Tesla) to investigate the M-LGN in DD in-vivo. Using a case-control design, we acquired data from a large sample of young adults with DD (n = 26; age 28 ± 7 years; 13 females) and matched control participants (n = 28; age 27 ± 6 years; 15 females). Each participant completed a comprehensive diagnostic behavioral test battery and participated in two MRI sessions, including three functional MRI experiments and one structural MRI acquisition. We measured blood-oxygen-level-dependent responses and longitudinal relaxation rates to compare both groups on LGN subdivision function and myelination. Based on previous research, we hypothesized that the M-LGN is altered in DD and that these alterations are associated with a key DD diagnostic score, i.e., rapid letter and number naming (RANln). The results showed aberrant responses of the M-LGN in DD compared to controls, which was reflected in a different functional lateralization of this subdivision between groups. These alterations were associated with RANln performance, specifically in male DD. We also found lateralization differences in the longitudinal relaxation rates of the M-LGN in DD relative to controls. Conversely, the other main subdivision of the LGN, the parvocellular LGN (P-LGN), showed comparable blood-oxygen-level-dependent responses and longitudinal relaxation rates between groups. The present study is the first to unequivocally show that M-LGN alterations are a hallmark of DD, affecting both the function and microstructure of this subdivision. It further provides a first functional interpretation of M-LGN alterations and a basis for a better understanding of sex-specific differences in DD with implications for prospective diagnostic and treatment strategies.

Eye care following pre-school vision screening: Data from the Growing Up in New Zealand study.

This study aimed to determine adherence with follow-up from the New Zealand pre-school vision screening programme. The study also examined associations between pre-school vision screening outcomes and cognitive measures assessed at the 54-month follow-up in the Growing Up in New Zealand study cohort. A cross-sectional retrospective record review of pre-school vision screening outcomes and hospital ophthalmology records with linkage to Growing Up in New Zealand cohort study data. Of 176 children referred from vision screening, 21.6% did not attend a referral appointment. Of 138 children who attended a referral appointment, 21.0% did not attend one or more follow-up appointments. Ethnic differences were observed in attendance at referral appointments (attended Māori 13%, Pacific 22.5%, European/Other 64.5%; not attended Māori 26.3%, Pacific 28.9%, European/Other 44.7%; P = 0.04) and follow-up appointments (attended Māori 11.9%, Pacific 15.6%, European/Other 72.5%; not attended Māori 17.2%, Pacific 48.3%, European/Other 34.5%; P = 0.001). Vision screening outcome was significantly associated with letter naming fluency scores (P = 0.01) but not name and numbers scores (P = 0.05). Non-attendance at referral and follow-up appointments limits the efficacy of vision screening, particularly for children of Māori and Pacific ethnicity. Children referred from vision screening achieve lower scores on letter naming fluency, a key predictor of reading ability in later childhood. Equity-based improvements are required to ensure that all children referred from vision screening receive appropriate follow-up eye care.

How relations between early reading skills and third-grade mathematics outcomes vary across distribution: A quantile regression approach.

Early reading skills are critical for later academic outcomes, which include mathematics. Yet, these relations may vary by a child's ability level. This study examined how early reading skills relate to different levels of third-grade mathematics. The samples included 105 same-sex twin pairs (210 individuals, 57% female, 43% male) from the ongoing longitudinal Western Reserve Reading and Math Projects, assessed at kindergarten (M = 6.18, SD = 0.44) and third grade (M = 9.07, SD = 0.49). Kindergarten reading measures consisted of the Letter Identification task from the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised Normative Update, the Deletion subtests from Phonological Awareness Test, and the Letter Naming Fluency task from the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills; third-grade math measures included Calculation, Fluency, Applied Problem, and Quantitative Concepts subtests of Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Both linear and quantile regressions were conducted using reading measures as predictors and math measures as the dependent variables. Linear regressions indicated that the Deletion Summary Score was a unique predictor of Applied Problems, and Letter Naming Fluency was a significant and unique predictor of Calculation Fluency and Quantitative Concepts. Quantile regressions provided a more thorough analysis of these relations. It was found that Letter Naming Fluency was significantly associated with Calculation, Calculation Fluency, and Quantitative Concepts at the lower level. The Deletion Summary Score had relatively stable relations with Applied Problems across all levels. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Online Intergenerational Tutoring Program: Older Adults Using Technology to Improve Children’s Early Literacy Skills

ABSTRACT Intergenerational tutoring programs can leverage technology to address the instructional needs of students. This study describes a novel online intergenerational tutoring program designed to target kindergarten students’ literacy skills. Older adult volunteers delivered evidence-based instructional strategies via Zoom. The study used a two-group, quasi-experimental design with students assigned to an intervention (n = 23) or waitlist control (n = 18) group. Five early literacy fluency skills were measured (letter naming, letter sound, phoneme segmentation, nonsense word, and real word). Tutors implemented the program with high fidelity. At posttest, the intervention group scored higher than the control group on each of the five skills and the group differences were statistically significant with a medium effect size for letter sound fluency and nonsense word fluency. Both tutors and parents reported high program acceptability. This study demonstrated how older adults can use online technology to disseminate evidence-based instructional interventions to children.

The judicial superego: Implicit egoism, internalized racism, and prejudice in three million sentencing decisions

AbstractI document implicit egoism across 3 million sentencing decisions. In administrative data from the U.S. New Orleans District Attorney's office for 1988–1999 and Chile for 2014–2019, sentences are 8% longer and 2% longer, respectively, when the judge and defendant's first initials match. Name letter effects measure implicit self‐esteem. Faced with ego threat, high self‐esteem individuals punish negatively valenced targets as self‐regulation. In New Orleans, effects are larger for Black defendants labeled by police as “N” rather than “B.” Consistent with recent theoretical models, Black–White sentence differences double for egoist judges, and this effect is especially pronounced among Black judges.

The Contributions of Short-Term Memory to Writing at the Sublexical, Lexical, and Discourse Level in Beginning Writers

ABSTRACT Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the direct and indirect relations between short-term memory (STM), reading, oral language, and writing at the letter, word, and discourse levels in young, developing writers both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Method Participants were 449 English-speaking kindergarten students (52% female) from 41 schools in the U.S. Results The cross-sectional analysis indicated that STM was directly related to oral language (β = 0.62), letter naming fluency (β = 0.43), word reading (β = 0.54), and reading comprehension (β = 0.42), all of which were statistically significant. Results supported a complete mediation model with STM having an indirect effect on writing via reading and oral language. In the cross-sectional analysis, the total effects of STM on handwriting (β = 0.51), spelling (β = 0.57), and written composition (β = 0.47) were substantial and statistically significant. In the longitudinal analysis, the total effects of Fall STM on Spring writing outcomes, handwriting (β = 0.42), spelling (β = 0.70), and written composition (β = 0.44) were also substantial and statistically significant. Conclusion Findings confirm that STM is a foundational cognitive skill necessary for early writing; however, they provide a more nuanced understanding by showing that the contribution of STM is indirect through reading and oral language. Writing is complex, requiring interaction among higher-order domain-specific and domain-general components. Along with other recent studies, our findings highlight the need to examine the direct and indirect effects for a more precise understanding of skills that support writing development.

Longitudinal effects of socioeconomic status on first and second language reading development: evidence from Chinese children learning English

AbstractWhile it has been shown that socioeconomic status (SES) is important for children’s literacy development in their first language (L1), less is known about its association with reading in a second language (L2). The present study examined the different effects of SES on the acquisition of reading in Chinese as L1 and English as L2 from ages 7 to 11, among 291 Chinese children. The results showed that the contribution of SES to Chinese word reading was not significant. In contrast, SES significantly predicted English word reading. Mediation analyses revealed that SES had direct and indirect effects on English word reading, through phonological awareness and letter name knowledge, but only an indirect effect on Chinese word reading through phonological awareness and vocabulary knowledge. These findings highlight the importance of SES for reading acquisition in L2, and the influence of language-specific characteristics on the cognitive/linguistic skills required to master reading in a specific language.

A novel GARP humanized mouse model for efficacy assessment of GARP-targeting therapies

Although breakthroughs have been achieved with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) therapy, some tumors do not respond to those therapies due to primary or acquired resistance. GARP, a type I transmembrane cell surface docking receptor mediating latent transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and abundantly expressed on regulatory T lymphocytes and platelets, is a potential target to render these tumors responsive to ICI therapy, and enhancing anti-tumor response especially combined with ICI. To facilitate these research efforts, we developed humanized mouse models expressing humanized GARP (hGARP) instead of their mouse counterparts, enabling in vivo assessment of GARP-targeting agents. We created GARP-humanized mice by replacing the mouse Garp gene with its human homolog. Then, comprehensive experiments, including expression analysis, immunophenotyping, functional assessments, and pharmacologic assays, were performed to characterize the mouse model accurately. The Tregs and platelets in the B-hGARP mice (The letter B is the first letter of the company's English name, Biocytogen.) expressed human GARP, without expression of mouse GARP. Similar T, B, NK, DCs, monocytes and macrophages frequencies were identified in the spleen and blood of B-hGARP and WT mice, indicating that the humanization of GARP did not change the distribution of immune cell in these compartments. When combined with anti-PD-1, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against GARP/TGF-β1 complexes demonstrated enhanced in vivo anti-tumor activity compared to monotherapy with either agent. The novel hGARP model serves as a valuable tool for evaluating human GARP-targeting antibodies in immuno-oncology, which may enable preclinical studies to assess and validate new therapeutics targeting GARP. Furthermore, intercrosses of this model with ICI humanized models could facilitate the evaluation of combination therapies.

Challenges and computer-aided reading strategies in vocabulary enhancement

Early literacy development depends significantly on developing a vocabulary, and computer-aided reading techniques have the potential to improve this process. To maximize their efficacy, grade 1 teachers might encounter particular difficulties when implementing these tactics into their lesson plans. In light of this, the goal of this study is to determine the difficulties that Grade 1 instructors encounter when instructing vocabulary and investigate the possibility of using computer-aided reading procedures to help with these difficulties. The primary goal of the qualitative research for this study was to interview grade 1 teachers about their experiences and anecdotes. Six professional teachers—four from private and four from public schools— participated in the study's interviews. According to the results, the most challenges that first-grade teachers encounter when trying to expand their students' vocabulary include the transition from their native tongue to English, word pronunciation and spelling mistakes, and students' reluctance to learn new vocabulary. The twenty experienced educators use a range of techniques to help students with their vocabulary. These include using the Marungko Method in a multimedia presentation to introduce letter names and sounds, watching phonics and phonemic movies, pronouncing words using YouTube videos and audio-visual presentations, interactive slides, digital flashcards, recordings of the alphabet, and rereading while playing interactive language games to help with retention. The study's outcomes will contribute to the existing literature on vocabulary instruction and computer-aided learning, highlighting the potential of technology in addressing the challenges faced by Grade 1 teachers.

Analysis of Ability to Recognize Letters B and D Ages 5 — 6 Years in Private Kindergarten St. Antonius 2 Medan

The problem in this study is that some children are not able to correctly name letter symbols such as the letter “b” to “d”. This study aims to determine the analysis of children's ability to recognize the letters b and d by writing to the board and mentioning the letters b and d. The study is a type of qualitative descriptive research. The subjects of the study were 5 children who knew letters b and d in class B1 in kindergarten St. Antonius 2 Medan. To obtain data using observations and documentation. Data already collected are analyzed, data reduction, as well as data presentation and conclusion drawing. The results of the study at St. Antonius Kindergarten 2 Medan showed that an analysis of the ability to recognize letters b and d was carried out to the respondents with assessment indicators that the researcher had provided through observation methods. Respondents A, B, C and D at the time of the ability to recognize the letters b and d arose awareness of the letters b and d by being marked while learning to the blackboard. Stages of writing the letters b and d on the board, respondents A, B, C, and D were already able to give meaning to the vision on the board letters b and d by using good language.

Challenges in Enhancing Letter-Name Knowledge Acquisition for Public Pre-Primary Children in Shinyanga Region

Letter Name Knowledge is among the most vital emergent literacy skills that predict future reading and writing among pre-primary children, and teachers are central to learning. Much has been researched on the factors influencing letter name acquisition, including the child's characteristics in the home and school environment. Less research has been done on pre-primary teachers’ views on the factors they encounter in enhancing letter name skills in children. This study investigated pre-primary teachers' challenges in enhancing letter-name knowledge among pre-primary learners in the Shinyanga District Council, Shinyanga Region. The study identified challenges pre-primary teachers encounter in enhancing letter-name knowledge. The study also assessed the challenges pre-primary teachers face in enhancing the knowledge of letter names for pre-primary children with the guidance of the Whole-Child Approach. A qualitative approach and phenomenological design were utilised for the study.20 (to the point of saturation) pre-primary teachers were involved in the interview for data collection. The obtained data were analyzed thematically. The findings identified the following challenges: pre-primary children’s use of mother tongue, inadequate teaching and learning facilities and instructional materials, lack of teachers’ professionalism, large class size and instructional burden, children absenteeism and implementation of pre-primary curriculum. In conclusion, the identified challenges influence pre-primary teachers' effectiveness in enhancing letter name knowledge acquisition for public pre-primary children in the Shinyanga region. The study recommends that the Ministry of Science and Technology (MoEST) create a mother tongue policy for pre-primary children for quality, fair and holistic comprehensive curricula provision in rural areas.

From Scribbles to Stories: A Systematic Review Exploring Handwriting Intervention approaches for Children

This study aims to review the literature related to the effectiveness of various handwriting interventions in combating handwriting troubles in children aged 4 to 12 years. A thorough search across databases, including PubMed, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and others, was conducted for studies published from 2013 till now. Included studies investigated handwriting interventions by occupational therapists, their effectiveness, and how handwriting impacts the brain and other functional areas. Quality assessment and data extraction adhered to predetermined criteria. Overall, 12 studies met inclusion criteria, covering issues like poor fine motor skills, dysgraphia, and dysfunctional pencil grasp. Examined interventions included pencil grips, pen sizes, sensory feedback, and sensorimotor training. Findings suggest positive effects on legibility, writing speed, fluency, letter form production, alignment, size, spacing, reading, spelling, composition, proficient letter recognition, letter naming, writing fluency, pinch strength, and pencil grasp

תרומת "ריפוי-בעיסוק" כמקצוע האם, ורמת אוריינות הבית לניצני אוריינות הילד: מחקר חלוץ השוואתי

Aims: Emergent literacy is a predictor of formal reading and writing and maternal education and profession can have a significant positive influence on these achievements. Within their daily work with young children many occupational therapists focus on emergent literacy. An additional factor promoting emergent literacy in the he home literacy environment (HLE). Given these two assumptions we examined whether the emergent literacy of children of mothers who are occupational therapists, who work with preschoolers is higher than of children, whose mothers have the same level of education, but work in a profession that is not therapeutic-educational. Furthermore, we asked whether HLE or maternal profession contribute more to children’s emergent literacy level? Method: Participants included 60 preschoolers aged 60-72 months and their mothers. Half of the mothers are occupational therapists, who work with preschoolers, and half have an academic profession not related to therapy or education. Mothers completed demographic and HLE questionnaires. Children were tested in letter writing, letter names, letter-sound connections, phonological-awareness, and word writing. Results: HLE and the emergent literacy level of children whose mothers are occupational therapists were significantly higher than those of children whose mothers work in other professions. Furthermore, mothers’ profession made a significant contribution to children’s emergent literacy, while the HLE level made no contribution at all. Conclusions: The study indicates the importance of occupational therapist mothers’ professional knowledge regarding their children’s emergent literacy, beyond academic education. It is suggested that parents who are not in this profession be guided on the importance of promoting literacy among preschoolers.

Implementation Practices of Reading Programs in Elementary Education in Davao De Oro: A Multiple Case Study

This research delves into the nuanced landscape of implementing reading programs for non-readers in Indigenous People (IP) schools, uncovering the experiences, challenges, and strategies encountered by school administrators and reading coordinators. The study, conducted in selected elementary schools in Davao De Oro, engages nine participants using a meticulously designed interview guide validated by experts. Adhering to ethical standards outlined in the Belmont Report, the data gathering process employs in-depth interviews, meticulously audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim to ensure reliability. The qualitative data undergoes a multiple case study analysis, following Creswell’s qualitative method. Addressing four research questions, the study explores the implementation of reading practices, roadblocks faced, management strategies employed, and insights gained from IP school programs. Emerging themes highlight the significance of continuous practice, contextualization of materials, routinary reading activities, differentiated programs, and alternative reading approaches. Identified roadblocks encompass challenges in fundamental reading skills mastery, parental support deficiencies, language transition difficulties, and hesitant attitudes toward reading practices. Management strategies applied by school heads and reading coordinators focus on delegation, orientation, hands-on activities, parental involvement, and budget allocation for diverse learners. Insights emphasize the imperative to develop significant reading skills, involve parents in reading and writing acquisition, master letter names and sounds, strengthen reading practices, and ignite the interest of diverse non-readers in mastering reading skills. This research enriches the education field by providing a holistic perspective on challenges and strategies in implementing reading programs for non-readers in IP schools. The findings underscore the necessity of a multifaceted approach, integrating skill development, parental involvement, and tailored strategies to sustain interest in reading among diverse learners.

Effects of online parent coaching on Filipino children's skills

Technology today can possibly help make early childhood interventions more accessible to young children in need. In the present study, we conducted all assessment and training of both parents and children entirely online to examine the effectiveness of an online parental coaching programme in facilitating young Filipino children's language, literacy, and numeracy skills. Ninety-four families with 3-to 5-year-old Cebuano-speaking children were randomly assigned into either the intervention group or a waitlist control group. The 13-week long online intervention group showed significant improvement in their receptive vocabulary, syllable matching, letter name knowledge, numeral identification, object counting, rote counting, missing number identification, numerical magnitude comparison and addition skills but not in their expressive vocabulary and syllable deletion relative to the waitlist control group. No moderation effect of socioeconomic status (SES) on the online intervention outcome was found. For the intervention group, a main effect for parental involvement on rote counting, missing number identification, and addition was found, with higher levels of participation in the coaching programme translating to greater gains. The present study underscores the validity and feasibility of an online format of intervention and assessment procedure, in a low-to-middle-income country context (LMIC). The current findings demonstrate the possible added benefits of an online intervention format and the importance of an integrated cross-domains intervention format.

A Comparative Study on Visual Attention, Verbal Engagement and Parental Behaviors During Shared Book Reading Using Scripted and Unscripted Story Books for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Purpose: Shared book reading is nowadays considered as an important early language stimulation technique in the field of speech language pathology which encourages parent-child bonding and creates a conducive environment for language development. The parent-child interaction is important for a child with Autism Spectrum Disorder. This interaction along with adequate and contingent parental responses fosters early language development in children. Language-related parent behaviors promote children’s oral language skills by not only exposing the child to book-related vocabulary (e.g., labeling pictures, explaining word meanings, and linking words to everyday events), but also through explicit teaching of meaning-related skills related to the overall structure of the story (i.e., story grammar). Print-related SBR behaviors draw the child’s attention to print-related features of the book, for example, letter names and sounds.Methods: To better understand the relationship between children’s visual attention, verbal engagement and parent shared book reading behaviors during shared book reading tasks, this study included 10 preschoolers on the Autism Spectrum and their parents sharing an unfamiliar storybook including which are scripted and unscripted. Videos of the shared book reading interactions were transcribed and coded for visual attention, verbal engagement and parent behaviors using observational coding schemes. The frequency of visual attention, verbal engagement and parental SBR behaviors were compared between the scripted and unscripted story books using statistical tests-Wilcoxon signed rank test and Fisher’s Exact test.Results: Result reveals that there was no statistically significant difference between frequency of visual attention during unscripted story books and scripted books. Parental behaviors parameters pertaining to shared book reading were analyzed and found a significant difference in usage of book language is greater for scripted story books compared to unscripted books.Conclusions: The key findings shows the type of book (scripted or unscripted) have a significant impact and its contribution to the intervention of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Parental SBR behaviors can in turn contribute to the development of childhood language and preliteracy skills.

초등영어 리터러시 격차 및 보정체계 연구

This study diagnosed the basic literacy skills and analyzed the competency gaps of 91 second graders across four classes of a public elementary school in Metropolitan City B in South Korea. Second graders were selected because they have not begun formally studying EFL (English as a foreign language) in school. Based on Acadience Reading K-6, the test used in this study consisted of 30 multiple-choice questions specifically developed for Korean students encompassing eight diagnostic areas (Alphabetics, Letter Naming, Fluency, First Sound Fluency, Phoneme Segment Fluency, Non-Sense Word Fluency, Word Decoding, and Maze). The study found a wide gap among the participants in basic literacy skills, and a key variable was the starting age of English study. Multi-level analysis showed that the participants’ abilities grew systematically and disproportionately. Explicit instruction for the deficit areas was found to be required, and systematic phonics education was deemed essential. The study attempted to derive the implications of systematic intervention in the future, based on the revealed areas of deficit in the detailed literacy capabilities.