Myosin Light Chain Kinase Activity Research Articles

PGE2 promotes Ca2+-mediated epithelial barrier disruption through EP1 and EP4 receptors in Caco-2 cell monolayers

We recently demonstrated that PGE(2) induces the disruption of the intestinal epithelial barrier function. In the present study, our objectives were to study the role of PGE(2) receptors (EP(1)-EP(4)) and the signaling pathways involved in this event. Paracellular permeability (PP) was assessed in differentiated Caco-2 cell cultures from d-mannitol fluxes and transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) in the presence of different PGE(2) receptor agonists (carbacyclin, sulprostone, butaprost, ONO-AE1-259, ONO-AE-248, GR63799, and ONO-AE1-329) and antagonists (ONO-8711, SC-19220, AH-6809, ONO-AE3-240, ONO-AE3-208, and AH-23848). The results indicate that EP(1) and EP(4) but not EP(2) and EP(3) might be involved in PP regulation. These effects were mediated through PLC-inositol trisphosphate (IP(3))-Ca(2+) and cAMP-PKA signaling pathways, respectively. We also observed an increase in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) strengthened by cAMP formation indicating a cross talk interaction of these two pathways. Moreover, the participation of a conventional PKC isoform was shown. The results also indicate that the increase in PP may be correlated with the redistribution of occludin, zona occludens 1 (ZO-1), and the perijunctional actin ring together with an increase in myosin light chain kinase activity. Although the disruption of epithelial barrier function observed in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients has been traditionally attributed to cytokines, the present study focused on the role of PGE(2) in PP regulation, as mucosal levels of this eicosanoid are also increased in these inflammatory processes.

Myosin light chain kinase in microvascular endothelial barrier function

Microvascular barrier dysfunction is implicated in the initiation and progression of inflammation, posttraumatic complications, sepsis, ischaemia-reperfusion injury, atherosclerosis, and diabetes. Under physiological conditions, a precise equilibrium between endothelial cell-cell adhesion and actin-myosin-based centripetal tension tightly controls the semi-permeability of microvascular barriers. Myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) plays an important role in maintaining the equilibrium by phosphorylating myosin light chain (MLC), thereby inducing actomyosin contractility and weakening endothelial cell-cell adhesion. MLCK is activated by numerous physiological factors and inflammatory or angiogenic mediators, causing vascular hyperpermeability. In this review, we discuss experimental evidence supporting the crucial role of MLCK in the hyperpermeability response to key cell signalling events during inflammation. At the cellular level, in vitro studies of cultured endothelial monolayers treated with MLCK inhibitors or transfected with specific inhibiting peptides have demonstrated that induction of endothelial MLCK activity is necessary for hyperpermeability. Ex vivo studies of live microvessels, enabled by development of the isolated, perfused venule method, support the importance of MLCK in endothelial permeability regulation in an environment that more closely resembles in vivo tissues. Finally, the role of MLCK in vascular hyperpermeability has been confirmed with in vivo studies of animal disease models and the use of transgenic MLCK210 knockout mice. These approaches provide a more complete view of the role of MLCK in vascular barrier dysfunction.

The mechanism by which RhoA regulates vascular reactivity after hemorrhagic shock in rats

RhoA, an important member of the Rho family of GTPases, has been implicated in many cellular processes. Our pilot study found that RhoA participated in the regulation of vascular reactivity after shock, but the mechanism was incompletely understood. Whether RhoA regulates vascular reactivity through the Rho kinase-myosin light-chain phosphatase (MLCP) and Rac1-p21-activated kinase (PAK)-myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK) signaling pathway needs investigation. With isolated, superior mesenteric arteries from hemorrhagic-shock rats and hypoxia-treated vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), the effects of U-46619 (RhoA agonist) and C3 transferase (RhoA antagonist) on vascular reactivity, and the relationship to the Rho kinase-MLCP and Rac1-PAK-MLCK signaling pathways were observed. The vascular reactivity of the superior mesenteric artery and the contractile response of VSMCs to norepinephrine after prolonged hemorrhagic shock and hypoxia (2 h) were significantly decreased. Activation of RhoA with U-46619 significantly increased shock or hypoxia-induced decreased vascular reactivity. These effects of U-46619 were abolished by Y-27632 (Rho kinase inhibitor) and PDGF (Rac1 stimulator). Y-27632 had a stronger antagonistic effect than PDGF. U-46619 increased the activity of Rho kinase and MLCK, enhanced the phosphorylation of 20-kDa myosin light chain, and decreased the activity of Rac1, PAK, and MLCP in VSMCs after hypoxia. Y-27632-antagonized U-46619 induced the decrease of MLCP activity and the increase of 20-kDa myosin light chain phosphorylation. PDGF-antagonized U-46619 induced decrease of PAK activity and increase of MLCK activity. RhoA has an important role in the regulation of vascular reactivity after hemorrhagic shock. The Rho kinase-MLCP and Rac1-PAK-MLCK signal pathways participate in the regulatory process of RhoA. Rho kinase-MLCP may be the main signaling pathway by which RhoA regulates vascular reactivity.

S1778 Intracellular Calcium and Myosin Light Chain Kinase (MLCK) Activation are Involved in the Mechanism of Dextran Sodium Sulfate (DSS)-Induced Tight Junction (TJ) Disruption in CACO-2 Cell Monolayers

S1778 Intracellular Calcium and Myosin Light Chain Kinase (MLCK) Activation are Involved in the Mechanism of Dextran Sodium Sulfate (DSS)-Induced Tight Junction (TJ) Disruption in CACO-2 Cell Monolayers

Role of myosin light chain kinase in intestinal epithelial barrier defects in a rat model of bowel obstruction

BackgroundBowel obstruction is a common cause of abdominal emergency, since the patients are at increased risk of septicemia resulting in high mortality rate. While the compartmentalized changes in enteric microfloral population and augmentation of bacterial translocation (BT) have already been reported using experimental obstruction models, alterations in epithelial permeability of the obstructed guts has not been studied in detail. Myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) is actively involved in the contraction of epithelial perijunctional actinomyosin ring and thereby increases paracellular permeability. In the current study we attempt to investigate the role of MLCK in epithelial barrier defects using a rat model of simple mechanical obstruction.MethodsWistar rats received intraperitoneal injection of ML-7 (a MLCK inhibitor) or vehicle at 24, 12 and 1 hrs before and 12 hrs after intestinal obstruction (IO). The distal small intestine was obstructed with a single ligature placed 10 cm proximal to the ileocecal junction in IO rats for 24 hrs. Sham-operated rats served as controls.ResultsMucosal injury, such as villous blunting and increased crypt/villus ratio, was observed in the distal small intestine of IO rats. Despite massive enterocyte shedding, intestinal villi were covered with a contiguous epithelial layer without cell apoptosis. Increased transmural macromolecular flux was noticed in the distal small intestine and the proximal colon after IO. The bacterial colony forming units in the spleen and liver of IO rats were significantly higher than those of sham controls. Addition of ML-7 ameliorated the IO-triggered epithelial MLC phosphorylation, mucosal injury and macromolecular flux, but not the level of BT.ConclusionsThe results suggest that IO-induced premature enterocytic sloughing and enhanced paracellular antigenic flux were mediated by epithelial MLCK activation. In addition, enteric bacteria may undergo transcytotic routes other than paracellular paths to cross the epithelium.

MLCK-dependent exchange and actin binding region-dependent anchoring of ZO-1 regulate tight junction barrier function

The perijunctional actomyosin ring contributes to myosin light chain kinase (MLCK)-dependent tight junction regulation. However, the specific protein interactions involved in this process are unknown. To test the hypothesis that molecular remodeling contributes to barrier regulation, tight junction protein dynamic behavior was assessed by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). MLCK inhibition increased barrier function and stabilized ZO-1 at the tight junction but did not affect claudin-1, occludin, or actin exchange in vitro. Pharmacologic MLCK inhibition also blocked in vivo ZO-1 exchange in wild-type, but not long MLCK(-/-), mice. Conversely, ZO-1 exchange was accelerated in transgenic mice expressing constitutively active MLCK. In vitro, ZO-1 lacking the actin binding region (ABR) was not stabilized by MLCK inhibition, either in the presence or absence of endogenous ZO-1. Moreover, the free ABR interfered with full-length ZO-1 exchange and reduced basal barrier function. The free ABR also prevented increases in barrier function following MLCK inhibition in a manner that required endogenous ZO-1 expression. In silico modeling of the FRAP data suggests that tight junction-associated ZO-1 exists in three pools, two of which exchange with cytosolic ZO-1. Transport of the ABR-anchored exchangeable pool is regulated by MLCK. These data demonstrate a critical role for the ZO-1 ABR in barrier function and suggest that MLCK-dependent ZO-1 exchange is essential to this mechanism of barrier regulation.

Epithelial Myosin Light Chain Kinase Activation Induces Mucosal Interleukin-13 Expression to Alter Tight Junction Ion Selectivity

Intestinal barrier function is reduced in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin (IL)-13, which are up-regulated in IBD, induce barrier defects that are associated with myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) activation and increased claudin-2 expression, respectively, in cultured intestinal epithelial monolayers. Here we report that these independent signaling pathways have distinct effects on tight junction barrier properties and interact in vivo. MLCK activation alters size selectivity to enhance paracellular flux of uncharged macromolecules without affecting charge selectivity and can be rapidly reversed by MLCK inhibition. In contrast, IL-13-dependent claudin-2 expression increases paracellular cation flux in vitro and in vivo without altering tight junction size selectivity but is unaffected by MLCK inhibition in vitro. In vivo, MLCK activation increases paracellular flux of uncharged macromolecules and also triggers IL-13 expression, claudin-2 synthesis, and increased paracellular cation flux. We conclude that reversible, MLCK-dependent permeability increases cause mucosal immune activation that, in turn, feeds back on the tight junction to establish long-lasting barrier defects. Interactions between these otherwise distinct tight junction regulatory pathways may contribute to IBD pathogenesis.

Edema‐induced alterations in the regulation of myosin light chain phosphorylation in intestinal smooth muscle.

We have shown that edema decreases intestinal contractile activity via decreased intestinal smooth muscle myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation. The objective of this study was to determine the mechanism by which edema decreases MLC phosphorylation. Thus, regulation of MLC phosphorylation was studied in a rodent model of intestinal edema. Edema was induced by a combination of resuscitative fluid administration and induction of mesenteric venous hypertension. Edema‐induced changes in MLC kinase (MLCK) activity and phosphorylation of MYPT1 subunit of MLC phosphatase (MLCP) were measured in intestinal smooth muscle. Phosphorylation of the MYPT1 subunit in the presence of rho kinase (ROK), zipper interacting protein kinase (ZIPK), and p21 activated kinase (PAK) inhibitors, Y‐27632, SM‐1 peptide, and IPA‐3 respectively, was also measured. No significant changes in MLCK activity were observed in the edematous intestinal smooth muscle. In contrast, phosphorylation of the MYPT1 subunit of MLCP was significantly decreased in edematous intestinal smooth muscle compared to controls. Data suggest that both ROK and ZIPK were involved in edema‐induced decreases in MYPT1 phosphorylation. We conclude from these data that edema‐induced decreases in the inhibitory phosphorylation of MYPT1 subunit of MLCP via regulation of ROK and ZIPK result in decreased MLC phosphorylation in edematous intestinal smooth muscle.

Interaction of (α4 β1) integrin/VCAM‐1 induces Myosin Light Chain phosphorylation in monocytes and endothelial cells

We undertook this study to investigate the role of actin cytoskeleton and Myosin Light Chain (MLC) phosphorylation in transendothelial migration (TEM) of monocytes. Our studies demonstrated that exposure of THP‐1 to integrin‐activating antibody induced both Extracellular Signal‐Regulated Kinase (ERK) and MLC phosphorylation. These inductions were more pronounced in the presence of α4β1 ligand, CS‐1fibronectin. Exposure of THP‐1 cells to chemokines (MCP‐1, SDF‐1) induced MLC‐phosphorylation by activation of MLC kinase and inactivation of MLC phosphatase. The chemokine‐induced MLC phosphorylation was accompanied by ERK‐phosphorylation and was inhibited by pre‐exposure of the cells to the inhibitors of MLC kinase, protein kinase C and MEK/ERK. The integrin‐mediated clustering of VCAM‐1 on the endothelial cells (ECs) is mimicked by the crosslinking of antibodies to VCAM‐1. Our studies demonstrated that crosslinking of VCAM‐1 on ECs induces ERK and MLC phosphorylation. The induction of phosphorylation of MLC was attenuated when the cells were pre‐exposed to the inhibitors of MLC kinase, protein kinase C and MEK/ERK. Experiments in the transwell system showed that TEM of monocytes were reduced and enhanced after inhibition and induction of MLC phosphorylation in THP‐1 cells. Our studies demonstrated that interaction of α4β1/VCAM‐1 leads to a critical reaction in TEM of monocytes, phosphorylation of MLC.

Calcium Signaling Promotes Targeted Recycling of the Lateral Border Recycling Compartment (LBRC) During Diapedesis (140.1)

Abstract Leukocyte transendothelial migration (diapedesis, TEM) is a crucial step in both the innate and adaptive immune responses. We have shown that targeted recycling of membrane from a reticulum localized close to the endothelial cell (EC) lateral border (the lateral border recycling compartment, LBRC) surrounds the transmigrating leukocyte during TEM (Mamdouh, Z., et al 2003. Nature). Targeted recycling is required for TEM to proceed. However the mechanisms underlying recruitment of the LBRC are not entirely clear. An increase of cytosolic free calcium (Ca) in ECs and the resulting activation of Ca/Calmodulin-dependent myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) are crucial for diapedesis to occur. Here we address the role of Ca signaling in the process of targeted recycling. The cell permeant Ca chelator BAPTA-AM was loaded into ECs under conditions that blocked calcium flux in response to histamine, but did not impair cytoskeletal or junctional integrity. Under these conditions, blocking of cytosolic free Ca flux in ECs abolished targeted recycling of the LBRC, as well as leukocyte transendothelial migration to the same extent (> 80%). Furthermore, blockade of MLCK with ML7 (1uM) also blocked targeted recycling and TEM by > 80%. This study demonstrates that Ca signaling is upstream of LBRC targeted recycling, and MLCK activation (presumably by Ca/Calmodulin dependent mechanism) is required for targeted recruitment of the LBRC.

The Role of IP3 Receptors in Generating Calcium Waves and Cerebral Myogenic Tone

This study of the cerebral vasculature examined whether: 1) elevated intravascular pressure induces asynchronous Ca2+ waves by activating IP3 receptors; and 2) these events drive myogenic tone development by augmenting myosin light chain phosphorylation (LC20). Rat cerebral arteries pressurized between 20–100 mmHg were examined in the absence and presence of agents that deplete the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) of Ca2+ or block IP3 receptors. Diameter and membrane potential (VM) were assessed using conventional techniques whereas Ca2+ waves and LC20 phosphorylation were monitored using confocal microscopy and western blot analysis, respectively. Elevated intravascular pressure increased the proportion of smooth muscle cells firing Ca2+ waves as well as the frequency of these voltage‐independent events. Agents that deplete the SR of Ca2+ (ryanodine, CPA and Thapsigargin) or block IP3 receptors (2‐APB or Xestospongin‐C) eliminated Ca2+ wave generation. The loss of Ca2+ waves attenuated LC20 phosphorylation and attenuated myogenic tone development. It did not, however, alter pressure‐induced depolarization in an intact artery In summary, this study shows that pressure‐induced Ca2+ waves facilitate cerebral myogenic tone by providing a proportion of the Ca2+ required to activate myosin light chain kinase. Supported by NSERC.

Caveolin-1–dependent occludin endocytosis is required for TNF-induced tight junction regulation in vivo

Epithelial paracellular barrier function, determined primarily by tight junction permeability, is frequently disrupted in disease. In the intestine, barrier loss can be mediated by tumor necrosis factor (alpha) (TNF) signaling and epithelial myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) activation. However, TNF induces only limited alteration of tight junction morphology, and the events that couple structural reorganization to barrier regulation have not been defined. We have used in vivo imaging and transgenic mice expressing fluorescent-tagged occludin and ZO-1 fusion proteins to link occludin endocytosis to TNF-induced tight junction regulation. This endocytosis requires caveolin-1 and is essential for structural and functional tight junction regulation. These data demonstrate that MLCK activation triggers caveolin-1-dependent endocytosis of occludin to effect structural and functional tight junction regulation.

MLCK and PKC Involvements via Gi and Rho A Protein in Contraction by the Electrical Field Stimulation in Feline Esophageal Smooth Muscle

We have shown that myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) was required for the off-contraction in response to the electrical field stimulation (EFS) of feline esophageal smooth muscle. In this study, we investigated whether protein kinase C (PKC) may require the on-contraction in response to EFS using feline esophageal smooth muscle. The contractions were recorded using an isometric force transducer. On-contraction occurred in the presence of N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), suggesting that nitric oxide acts as an inhibitory mediator in smooth muscle. The excitatory composition of both contractions was cholinergic dependent which was blocked by tetrodotoxin or atropine. The on-contraction was abolished in Ca(2+)-free buffer but reappeared in normal Ca(2+)-containing buffer indicating that the contraction was Ca(2+) dependent. 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), voltage-dependent K(+) channel blocker, significantly enhanced on-contraction. Aluminum fluoride (a G-protein activator) increased on-contraction. Pertussis toxin (a G(i) inactivator) and C3 exoenzyme (a rhoA inactivator) significantly decreased on-contraction suggesting that Gi or rhoA protein may be related with Ca(2+) and K(+) channel. ML-9, a MLCK inhibitor, significantly inhibited on-contraction, and chelerythrine (PKC inhibitor) affected on the contraction. These results suggest that endogenous cholinergic contractions activated directly by low-frequency EFS may be mediated by Ca(2+), and G proteins, such as Gi and rhoA, which resulted in the activation of MLCK, and PKC to produce the contraction in feline distal esophageal smooth muscle.

Mechanisms of airway smooth muscle relaxation induced by beta2-adrenergic agonists

Airway smooth muscle cell (ASMC) contraction is regulated by myosin phosphorylation to control actin-myosin cross-bridge activity. Myosin phosphorylation is determined by the antagonistic activity of myosin light chain (MLC) kinase (MLCK) and phosphatase (MLCP). MLCK activity is increased by increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) associated with Ca2+ oscillations. MLCP activity is decreased by phosphorylation of MLCP or accessory proteins by kinases, including Rho-kinase or protein kinase C. During agonist-induced ASMC contraction, these 2 pathways are simultaneously activated. Because MLCP activity is often independent of [Ca2+]i, changes in MLCP activity can alter ASMC tone at a constant [Ca2+]i; a behavior termed Ca2+ sensitivity. In asthma, airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) may result from an increase in the Ca2+-dependent contractile mechanisms and/or the Ca2+ sensitivity of ASMCs. Conversely, inhalation of beta2-adrenergic agonists induce airway relaxation by simultaneously slowing the Ca2+ oscillations and reducing the Ca2+ sensitivity of ASMCs. However, the action of beta2-adrenergic agonists varies with species. Consequently, the development of beta2-adrenergic agonists requires a characterization of their action in human airways.

ARF6-Regulated Shedding of Tumor Cell-Derived Plasma Membrane Microvesicles

Increased mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, small GTPase activation, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and the directed targeting of proteases to sites of extracellular matrix degradation all accompany the process of tumor cell invasion. Several studies have implicated the small GTP-binding protein ARF6 in tumor cell invasion, although the molecular basis by which ARF6 facilitates this process is unclear. We show that the ARF6 GTP/GDP cycle regulates the release of protease-loaded plasma membrane-derived microvesicles from tumor cells into the surrounding environment. To enable microvesicle shedding, ARF6-GTP-dependent activation of phospholipase D promotes the recruitment of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) to the plasma membrane where, in turn, ERK phosphorylates and activates myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK). MLCK-mediated MLC phosphorylation is required for microvesicle release. Inhibition of ARF6 activation is accompanied by PKC-mediated phosphorylation of MLC, which blocks microvesicle shedding. Protein cargo appears to be selectively sorted into microvesicles, and adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is facilitated by microvesicle-associated integrin receptors. Microvesicle shedding in tumor cells occurs via an actomyosin-based membrane abscission mechanism that is regulated by nucleotide cycling on ARF6. Microvesicle shedding appears to release selected cellular components, particularly those involved in cell adhesion and motility, into the surrounding environment. These findings suggest that ARF6 activation and the proteolytic activities of microvesicles, both of which are thought to correlate directly with tumor progression, could potentially serve as biomarkers for disease.

Regulation of smooth muscle contraction/relaxation: paradigm shifts and quantifying arrows

Regulation of smooth muscle contraction/relaxation: paradigm shifts and quantifying arrows

Perturbation of Myosin Light Chain Kinase Activity Disrupts Membrane-Associated Events of Mouse Egg Activation and Egg Membrane Topography.

Perturbation of Myosin Light Chain Kinase Activity Disrupts Membrane-Associated Events of Mouse Egg Activation and Egg Membrane Topography.

Activation by Ca2+/calmodulin of an exogenous myosin light chain kinase in mouse arteries

Activation of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) and other kinases was studied in the arteries of transgenic mice that express an optical fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) MLCK activity biosensor. Binding of Ca(2+)/calmodulin (Ca(2+)/CaM) induces an increase in MLCK activity and a change in FRET. After exposure to high external [K(+)], intracellular [Ca(2+)] (fura-2 ratio or fluo-4 fluorescence) and MLCK activity both increased rapidly to an initial peak and then declined, rapidly at first and then very slowly. After an initial peak ('phasic') force was constant or increased slowly (termed 'tonic' force). Inhibition of rho-kinase (Y-27632) decreased tonic force more than phasic, but had little effect on [Ca(2+)] and MLCK activation. Inhibition of PKCalpha and PKCbeta with Gö6976 had no effect. KN-93, an inhibitor of CaMK II, markedly reduced force, MLCK FRET and [Ca(2+)]. Applied during tonic force, forskolin caused a rapid decrease in MLCK FRET ratio and force, but no change in Ca(2+), suggesting a cAMP mediated decrease in affinity of MLCK for Ca(2+)/CaM. However, receptor (beta-adrenergic) activated increases in cAMP during KCl were ineffective in causing relaxation, changes in [Ca(2+)], or MLCK FRET. At the same tonic force, MLCK FRET ratio activated by alpha(1)-adrenoceptors was approximately 60% of that activated by KCl. In conclusion, MLCK activity of arterial smooth muscle during KCl-induced contraction is determined primarily by Ca(2+)/CaM. Rho-kinase is activated, by unknown mechanisms, and increases 'Ca(2+) sensitivity' significantly. Forskolin mediated increases in cAMP, but not receptor mediated increases in cAMP cause a rapid decrease in the affinity of MLCK for Ca(2+)/CaM.

Signaling Processes for Initiating Smooth Muscle Contraction upon Neural Stimulation

Relationships among biochemical signaling processes involved in Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent phosphorylation of smooth muscle myosin regulatory light chain (RLC) by myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) were determined. A genetically-encoded biosensor MLCK for measuring Ca(2+)-dependent CaM binding and activation was expressed in smooth muscles of transgenic mice. We performed real-time evaluations of the relationships among [Ca2+](i), MLCK activation, and contraction in urinary bladder smooth muscle strips neurally stimulated for 3 s. Latencies for the onset of [Ca2+](i) and kinase activation were 55 +/- 8 and 65 +/- 6 ms, respectively. Both increased with RLC phosphorylation at 100 ms, whereas force latency was 109 +/- 3 ms. [Ca2+](i), kinase activation, and RLC phosphorylation responses were maximal by 1.2 s, whereas force increased more slowly to a maximal value at 3 s. A delayed temporal response between RLC phosphorylation and force is probably due to mechanical effects associated with elastic elements in the tissue. MLCK activation partially declined at 3 s of stimulation with no change in [Ca2+](i) and also declined more rapidly than [Ca2+](i) during relaxation. The apparent desensitization of MLCK to Ca2+ activation appears to be due to phosphorylation in its calmodulin binding segment. Phosphorylation of two myosin light chain phosphatase regulatory proteins (MYPT1 and CPI-17) or a protein implicated in strengthening membrane adhesion complexes for force transmission (paxillin) did not change during force development. Thus, neural stimulation leads to rapid increases in [Ca2+](i), MLCK activation, and RLC phosphorylation in phasic smooth muscle, showing a tightly coupled Ca2+ signaling complex as an elementary mechanism initiating contraction.

Calcium-independent phospholipase A2 participates in KCl-induced calcium sensitization of vascular smooth muscle

In vascular smooth muscle, KCl not only elevates intracellular free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i), myosin light chain kinase activity and tension (T), but also can inhibit myosin light chain phosphatase activity by activation of rhoA kinase (ROCK), resulting in Ca2+ sensitization (increased T/[Ca2+]i ratio). Precisely how KCl causes ROCK-dependent Ca2+ sensitization remains to be determined. Using Fura-2-loaded isometric rings of rabbit artery, we found that the Ca2+-independent phospholipase A2 (iPLA2) inhibitor, bromoenol lactone (BEL), reduced the KCl-induced tonic but not early phasic phase of T and potentiated [Ca2+]i, reducing Ca2+ sensitization. The PKC inhibitor, GF-109203X (≥3μM) and the pseudo-substrate inhibitor of PKCζ produced a response similar to BEL. BEL reduced basal and KCl-stimulated myosin phosphatase phosphorylation. Whereas BEL and H-1152 produced strong inhibition of KCl-induced tonic T (∼50%), H-1152 did not induce additional inhibition of tissues already inhibited by BEL, suggesting that iPLA2 links KCl stimulation with ROCK activation. The cPLA2 inhibitor, pyrrolidine-1, inhibited KCl-induced tonic increases in [Ca2+]i but not T, whereas the inhibitor of 20-HETE production, HET0016, acted like the ROCK inhibitor H-1152 by causing Ca2+ desensitization. These data support a model in which iPLA2 activity regulates Ca2+ sensitivity.