Myopia In School-aged Children Research Articles

Development of a risk score for myopia: A cohort study conducted among school-aged children in China.

To evaluate the myopia risk in school-aged children one year after lifting a pandemic-related lockdown and develop a tool to identify high-risk groups. In total, 38,079 children without myopia from 38 schools were included. The outcomes were myopia incidence and progression in 1 year after the COVID-19 lockdown was lifted, both obtained by the spherical equivalent refraction (SER). We separated the population into an exploratory (75%) and a validation sample (25%) to construct the risk score model. In total, 9811 (29.57%) students became myopic, and the overall myopia progression was 0.22 ± 0.62 D. Even less myopia progression was noted in the pre-myopia group at baseline (All: P = 0.045, Boy: P = 0.005). The risk score model included seven predictors: gender, grade, SER at baseline, residence, parental myopia, eye discomfort symptoms, and online courses. The model had a score range of 0-46 and an optimal cutoff of 34. The area under the receiver operating curve of the model was 0.726 (0.719-0.732) for the exploratory sample and 0.731 (0.720-0.742) for the validation sample. The risk score can serve as a practical tool for classifying the risk of myopia in school-aged children.

Assessment of optic disc morphological characteristics and related factors of highly myopic eyes in Chinese school-aged children

ABSTRACT Clinical relevance The morphological characteristics of the optic nerve head (ONH) in myopic eyes are a clinically significant issue, especially for high myopia in school-aged children, and this can be monitored using optical coherence tomography. Background The purpose of this study is to investigate the morphological characteristics of ONH, and the factors associated with peripapillary choroidal thickness in Chinese school-aged high myopia children. Methods A total of 48 patients, possessing 48 high myopia eyes and 48 contralateral low myopia eyes were enrolled. The ONH characteristic parameters, including peripapillary retinal nerve fibre layer thickness, peripapillary choroidal thickness, peripapillary choroidal blood flow density, Bruch’s membrane opening (BMO) characteristic parameters were measured on optical coherence tomography scans. Results Eyes with high myopia had a larger disc size, higher peripapillary atrophy area proportion, larger peripapillary atrophy area, larger BMO minimum rim width, lower peripapillary choroidal thickness compared with those contralateral low myopia eyes (all P < 0.001). The BMO distance and border length were longer, and border tissue angle was smaller in the high myopia eyes. The multivariate regression analysis revealed that border length, axial length, and border tissue angle were independently associated with peripapillary choroidal thickness (all P < 0.05); axial length was associated with peripapillary retinal nerve fibre layer thickness (P = 0.007). Conclusion The peripapillary atrophy area, BMO area, border length, BMO distance, and BMO minimum rim width increased, but peripapillary choroidal thickness, retinal nerve fibre layer thickness decreased with axial elongation of the globe in young myopia children. Longer axial length and border length were positively correlated with lower peripapillary choroidal thickness, and a smaller border tissue angle was positively correlated with lower peripapillary choroidal thickness were found in this study. Monitoring of border length and border tissue angle is essential in the early stages of myopia in children.

Perubahan Pengetahuan dan Sikap Terhadap Pencegahan Miopia Melalui Permainan Roda Putar

SD Al-Azhar 32 Padang is one of the schools with a high level of competition and is a full-day system school with students all day at school. Students' low knowledge and attitude toward myopia prevention are the causes of myopia in school-age children. Myopia prevention efforts need to be made to reduce the incidence of myopia in schoolchildren. This activity can be supported by a rotating wheel educational game tool. This study aims to determine changes in the knowledge and attitudes of schoolchildren toward myopia prevention efforts at Al-Azhar 32 elementary school in Padang. This research uses mixed-methods research (quantitative-qualitative), qualitatively using exploratory case studies and quantitatively using a quasi-experiment with a one-group pretest and posttest design. The population in this study were fifth-grade elementary school students, with a sample size of 64 people. Sampling technique with a purposive sample Informants in the study were eye health workers, health promotion workers, elementary school teachers, and graphic design experts. Data analysis consisted of univariate analysis and bivariate analysis with a paired t-test. The design of the rotating wheel educational game tool is attractive, and the colors vary. The average knowledge obtained before and after the intervention was 7.13 and 11.45, while the average attitude before and after the intervention was 37.23 and 44.06. The results showed that there was an average change in knowledge (p-value = 0.0001) and attitude (p-value = 0.0001). The conclusion of this study is that there are changes in the knowledge and attitudes of elementary school children toward myopia prevention efforts at Al-Azhar 32 elementary school in Padang. It is hoped that the school will follow up by incorporating education on myopia prevention efforts with a rotating wheel educational game into UKS activities at school.

Effect of Low-Concentration Atropine Eye Drops in Controlling the Progression of Myopia in Children: A One- and Two-Year Follow-Up Study

ABSTRACT Purpose Atropine eye drops have been shown to slow the progression of myopia, but there has been limited research on the effectiveness of 0.05% atropine in treating myopia. This study aimed to investigate the safety and efficacy of 0.05% atropine eye drops in controlling myopia in children. Methods The study included 424 participants aged 6 to 12 years between January 1, 2015, and January 1, 2021. Of these, 213 were randomly assigned to the 0.05% atropine group and 211 to the placebo group. The cycloplegic spherical equivalent (SE), axial length (AL), corneal curvature (K), and anterior chamber depth (ACD) were measured using IOLMaster. The lens power and corneal astigmatism were also determined. The changes in ocular biometric parameters were compared between the two groups, and the contributions of ocular characteristics to SE progression were calculated and compared. Results Over a 12-month period, the changes in spherical equivalent were −0.03 ± 0.28 and −0.32 ± 0.14 in the atropine and placebo groups, respectively (P = .01). The changes in axial length were 0.06 ± 0.11 and 0.17 ± 0.12, respectively (P = .01). At 18 and 24 months, there were significant differences in axial length and spherical equivalent between the atropine and placebo groups. Multiple regression models accounting for changes in AL, K, and lens magnification explained 87.23% and 98.32% of SE changes in the atropine and placebo groups, respectively. At 1 year (p = .01) and 2 years (p = .03), there were significant differences in photophobia between the atropine and placebo groups. Conclusions This two-year follow-up study demonstrates that 0.05% atropine eye drops are safe and effective in preventing the development of myopia in school-aged children.

Myopia Prevalence and its Correlation with Demographic Characteristics Before the COVID-19 Pandemic among Acehnese School Children (6-19 years) in Indonesia

The prevalence of myopia in school-age children has increased dramatically year by year. Myopia is an impact on academic achievement, and blindness, and increases the economic burden. The research objective was to analyze the prevalence of myopia and its relationship with demographic characteristics (age and gender) in school-age children. This study was a cross-sectional design. The respondents were male (M), female (F), and school-age children (aged 6-19 years). The total subjects were 1171 school students, Elementary Schools (n=661; M=326, F=335), Junior High Schools (n=307; M=138, F=169), and High Schools (n=203; M=84, F=119). Data analysis was descriptive and chi-square tests (p&lt;0.05). We found that the prevalence of myopia in school-age children was 14.61%. The highest rate of myopia is at the age of 19 years, girls (15.73%) more than boys (13.32%), in the late adolescent group (23.53%) more than the early adolescent group (18.75%), and childhood age (9.32%). Myopia in high school-age children (23.15%) was more than in junior high school students (20.85%), and elementary school students (9.07%). There was a relationship between age (p&lt;0.001*), age group (p&lt;0.001*), and school level (p&lt;0.001*), but otherwise, there was no association between gender (p=0.24) with myopia in school-age children. In conclusion: myopia prevalence is highest at the age of 19 years, a group of late teens, high school, and females more than males. Myopia is associated with age among Acehnese school children (6-19 years) in Indonesian, so that’s why we recommend performing visual acuity tests routinely.

Evaluation and Follow-up of Myopia Prevalence Among School-Aged Children Subsequent to the COVID-19 Home Confinement in Feicheng, China

Progression of myopia in a school-aged population due to home confinement (January to May 2021) during the COVID-19 pandemic has been previously reported. A key remaining question was whether the myopia spike in children aged 6 to 8 years persisted. To investigate the changes in refractive status and prevalence of myopia in school-aged children 1 year after home confinement ended in China. This cross-sectional study with a cohort substudy prospectively evaluated data from school-based photoscreening in Feicheng, China. Children aged 6 to 13 years participated in 8 screenings from 2015 to 2021. Noncycloplegic photorefraction was conducted using the Spot Vision photoscreener. The main outcomes were the differences in spherical equivalent refraction (SER) and prevalence of myopia between 2020 (during home confinement) and 2021 (after home confinement). The SER was recorded for each child, and the prevalence of myopia was calculated annually for each age group. A total of 325 443 children participated in the study (51.4% boys, 48.6% girls; age range, 6 to 13 years). Compared with 2020, the mean SER of children in 2021 increased significantly for those aged 6 (0.42 diopters [D]), 7 (0.41 D), and 8 (0.33 D) years. The prevalence of myopia in 2021 was similar to in 2019 for each age group (aged 6 years: 7.9% vs 5.7%; aged 7 years: 13.9% vs 13.6%; aged 8 years: 29.5% vs 26.2%). Both the prevalence of myopia and mean SER for these children returned to their prepandemic levels. Compared with 2020, the prevalence of myopia among children aged 6 to 8 years in the 2021 screenings decreased, and the mean SER returned to prepandemic level. The refractive development in children aged 6 to 8 years may be most susceptible to environmental changes. These findings support the premise that age 6 to 8 years is a critical period for myopia development and suggest a need to focus preventive interventions for myopia control on children in this age range.

Progression of myopia in school-aged children after COVID-19 home confinement: A systematic review

The systematic review attempts to examine all the data concerning digital screen use's influence on myopia development in a COVID-19 epidemic.: The literature was searched on PubMed and Science Direct from December 2019 to September 2022. Using the Preferred Reporting Item for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria, a total of 12 research papers were chosen for thorough evaluation after the exclusion criteria. Spherical equivalent refraction and axial length were outcomes of myopia progression. Time spent using digital devices and time spent exercising outside were examined as factors. Greater stress, increased use of electronic gadgets like laptops, tablets, and cell phones, as well as less time spent outside, have all been linked to an increase in the prevalence of myopia. Additionally, we discovered that the COVID-19 pandemic's commencement significantly changed children's behaviors since there was a switch from in-person instruction to online learning and a decline in outdoor activities because of home quarantine. : In children who participated in remote learning during the COVID-19 lockdown, increased reliance on digital devices for online classes has either caused or worsened visual disturbances like the rapid progression of myopia, symptoms of dry eye and visual fatigue, and vergence and accommodation disturbances. The outcomes of this methodical study show that myopia development is significantly impacted using digital screens during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Prevalence of myopia in school-age children in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

This study aimed to estimate the pooled prevalence of myopia among school-age children in Ethiopia. Eligible articles were searched from PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases. In addition, Google Scholar and reference lists of the retrieved articles were searched from 30 July 2022 to 02 January 2023. The preferred reporting of items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis was used to report the search results. Microsoft Excel was used to keep the data. The qualities of eligible studies were checked using the Joanna Briggs Institute critical appraisal checklist for prevalence studies. Analysis was held using STATA Version 11. The degree of heterogeneity was checked using I² statistics. The possible sources of heterogeneity were examined using meta-regression and subgroup analyses. The funnel plot and Egger's test were used to assess the potential publication bias. A correction was made for publication bias using Duval and Twee Die's trim-and-fill analysis. The systematic review registration number is PROSPERO (#CRD42022330541). We identified 21 eligible articles including 20,757 subjects. Of those participants, 10,601 (51.1%) and 10,156 (48.9%) were males and females, respectively. A total of 15,152 (73%) participants were urban residents. The estimated prevalence of myopia among school-age children in Ethiopia was found to be 5.26% (95% confidence interval: 4.09-6.42). The prevalence of myopia among school-age children in Ethiopia is considerable, affecting one in 20 school-age children. Therefore, the authors recommend the stakeholders take extra steps to speed up the implementation of the school vision screening program and its integration plan into the existing school nutrition program.

Progression in refractive error in children during COVID-19 pandemic due to virtual classes: A cohort study

Background: The pandemic resulted in increased screen hours in children due to virtual education. The rate of progression of myopia was noticed to be remarkable in the past 2 years. This study is an endeavor to study the effect of increased screen hours during COVID home confinement on the degree of progression of myopia in school children and to evaluate the difference in change of refractive errors with a variation in the screen size of the digital device used. Methods: This was prospective observational study with a retrospective comparison arm, wherein 70 school children (140 eyes) aged 4–18 years were subjected to a cycloplegic refraction test. The difference in spherical equivalent refraction from the year 2018 to 19 was compared with that of the difference observed in the pandemic year 2019–2020. A statistical analysis was also made regarding the correlation of variation in refraction between the different genders, age groups, and screen sizes. Results: Of the 70 children, 29 (41.42%) were girls and 41 (58.58%) were boys. The gadgets being used vary from mobiles to laptops, and the range of screens and sizes varies from 100 cm2 to 500 cm2. Similarly, the duration of device use varied from 4 to 8 h. For 2018, the mean value of the spherical equivalent was −1.69 ± 1.42, for 2019 it was −1.92 ± 1.50 and for 2020 the mean value was −2.61 ± 1.47 for the right eye. The mean value of the spherical equivalent for the left eye in 2018 was −1.68 ± 1.51, in 2019 the value was −1.87 ± 1.58, and in 2020, the mean value was −2.73 ± 1.78. Conclusions: Increased exposure to digital devices during the COVID-19 period has a role to play in the progression of myopia in school-aged children.

Prevalence of refractive error among Chinese preschool children: The Changsha children eye study.

We aimed to investigate the refractive status and prevalence of refractive error, as well as its characteristics in Chinese preschool children aged 1-6 years old. A population-based cross-sectional study-Changsha Children Eye Study (CCES) was conducted. The prevalence of refractive errors among children aged 1-6 years old from 18 community health service centers was surveyed. A handheld child vision screener, Suowei, was used for examination. A total of 43,105 preschool children were included. The mean spherical equivalent (SE) was 0.42 ± 1.05 D for the right eyes. The mean astigmatism (diopter of cylinder, DC) was -0.83 ± 1.02 D for the right eyes. The magnitude of refractive error was lower in older children, indicating the ongoing of the emmetropization during the 1-6-year-old children. The prevalence of myopia (SE ≤ -1.00 D), hyperopia (SE ≥ +2.00 D) and astigmatism (DC ≥1.50 D) was 2.94, 13.8 and 17.6%, respectively. The prevalence of myopia decreased with the increase of age between the six age groups (P < 0.001). The prevalence of hyperopia was lower in 5-6 years old, whereas, the prevalence of myopia was slightly higher at this period of time. With-the-rule (WTR) astigmatism (+ cylinder axis 90° ± 15°) was the most prevalent type of astigmatism than against-the-rule (ATR) astigmatism (+ cylinder axis 180° ± 15°) and oblique (OBL) astigmatism (X 2 = 209.5, P < 0.001). The binary logistic regression model showed that older age and suffering astigmatism were independently associated with the development of myopia. In addition, there was no significant gender difference in the prevalence of myopia, emmetropia, and hyperopia. Our population-based cross-sectional study investigated the prevalence of myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism in preschool children aged 1-6 years old. The distribution of the refractive error was disperse in the younger group and gradually turned more centralized in older group. Similar to hyperopia, with age increased, the prevalence of myopia was lower in preschool children younger than 5 years old and then slightly increased at 5-6 years, which may indicate an early sign of myopia in school-age children. Therefore, we emphasize that more attention should be given to the children at this age.

Does Physical Activity Moderate the Relationship between Myopia and Functional Status in Children 9-11 Years of Age?

Although previous studies have reported an association between physical activity (PA) and myopia in school-aged children, little is known about the link between myopia and children’s functional status. The purpose of this study was to investigate dynamic balance control in relation to the daily PA levels of myopic schoolchildren aged 9–11 years (n = 52) versus a non-myopic control group (n = 53). A single leg stance test performed on the instability platform of the Biodex Balance System was used to assess balance control. The overall stability index (OSI), anterior-posterior stability index (APSI) and medial-lateral stability index (MLSI) were analyzed. PA levels were calculated using the World Health Organization European Childhood Obesity Surveillance Initiative family record form. Myopes and non-myopes were separated into three subgroups based on PA level (low, moderate and high). Myopia significantly affected OSI (F = 40.46, p < 0.001), APSI (F = 33.93, p < 0.001) and MLSI (F = 49.51, p < 0.001). There were significant differences (p < 0.001) between myopic and non-myopic children with low and moderate levels of PA, whilst there were no differences between compared children with high levels of PA. High PA levels had a positive impact on balance control in myopes. Our results showed that PA levels moderate the relationship between myopia and children’s functional status.

The optimal cut-off value of non-cycloplegic autorefraction for diagnosing myopia in school-aged children.

To determine the optimal cut-off value of non-cycloplegic autorefraction for diagnosing myopia and estimating myopia prevalence in school-aged children. Retrospective case-control study. Based on age and sex, case-control data were extracted from the medical records of children who underwent autorefraction before and after instillation of 1% cyclopentolate eye drops. We regarded a spherical equivalent (SEQ) of -0.50 D or less found by cycloplegic autorefraction as myopia and determined the optimal cut-off value of non-cycloplegic autorefraction for diagnosing myopia using a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and diagnostic performance (DP) plots. Of a total of 232 children (mean age 8.2 [range: 6-12] years, 126 boys [54.3%]), 116 (50.0%) had myopia. In this cohort, the optimal cut-off SEQ for diagnosing myopia was -0.75 D with a sensitivity of 90.5% and specificity of 95.7%. However, the DP-plots indicated that the cut-off value significantly varied with prevalence of myopia: -1.31 D, -0.81 D, and -0.65 D for the prevalence of 30%, 50%, and 80%, respectively.For non-cycloplegic autorefraction, we found greater accommodation in children aged 6 years and hyperopic eyes (p < 0.001). When diagnosing myopia using non-cycloplegic autorefraction alone with a theoretical cut-off SEQ of -0.50 D, the prevalence of myopia will be overestimated, and we need to set the cut-off value lower (more myopic) especially in younger children with low prevalence.

Analysis of Myopia Related Factors of School-age Children in Shuangyashan City

Objective — To investigate the prevalence of myopia in a primary school in Shuangyashan City in recent two years and to make analysis on the influencing factors, so as to reduce the prevalence of myopia in children, as a result, to provide a theoretical basis for the prevention and treatment of myopia in Shuangyashan City. Methods — A total of 303 school-age children from a primary school in Shuangyashan City were selected for diopter screening, and the situation of myopia in preschool children was investigated. Results — The positive rate of 45 myopic children screened out from 303 school-age children stood at 14.85%. The positive rate increased with age. Univariate analysis showed statistically significant differences in age, mother's history of myopia, distance between books, time of using electronic devices, and time of sleep between myopia and age (P&lt;0.05). On this basis, the data with insufficient sample size were integrated and binary logistic analysis showed that adequate sleep, genetic factors and age were independent influencing factors. Conclusion — The incidence of myopia in school-age children is high. It is hoped that school, family and society should strengthen the protection of myopia and jointly carry out prevention and treatment work.

The Myopia Progression in School-Age Children after Home Quarantine Due to COVID-19

Myopia is an actual health issue in the world. The World Health Organization estimates that 50 % of the world population may be myopic by 2050. In response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak, the Russian government started a nationwide school closure as an emergency measure to prevent spreading of the infection since the 23rd of March 2020. The present study was organized to investigate prevalence of myopia in school-aged children during the COVID-19 home confinement in Moscow. The studied group included school-age children: pupils of 1, 5, 11th classes. The inclusion criteria were: myopia — refraction above –0.5 D in conditions of cycloplegia. The results of survey 523 pupils from Moscow schools, the proportion of patients with myopia was 20.1 %, while the proportion of patients with myopia among 1st class pupils was only 8.3 %. In 5th class, the rate was 16 %, in the 11th grade reached 42.1 %, i.e. increased more than 5 times. The trend with an increase in the number of children with myopia in the learning process is explained by the increased visual load of the high school curriculum. Home confinement during the COVID-19 pandemic appeared to be associated with a significant myopic shift for children aged 6 to 8 years due to the visual load increase in and a decrease in time spent outdoors. Further research is needed to evaluate these results and long-term follow-up of these children.

Progression of Myopia in School-Aged Children After COVID-19 Home Confinement

Time spent in outdoor activities has decreased owing to home confinement for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Concerns have been raised about whether home confinement may have worsened the burden of myopia owing to substantially decreased time spent outdoors and increased screen time at home. To investigate the refractive changes and prevalence of myopia in school-aged children during the COVID-19 home confinement. A prospective cross-sectional study using school-based photoscreenings in 123 535 children aged 6 to 13 years from 10 elementary schools in Feicheng, China, was conducted. The study was performed during 6 consecutive years (2015-2020). Data were analyzed in July 2020. Noncycloplegic photorefraction was examined using a photoscreener device. The spherical equivalent refraction was recorded for each child and the prevalence of myopia for each age group during each year was calculated. The mean spherical equivalent refraction and prevalence of myopia were compared between 2020 (after home confinement) and the previous 5 years for each age group. Of the 123 535 children included in the study, 64 335 (52.1%) were boys. A total of 194 904 test results (389 808 eyes) were included in the analysis. A substantial myopic shift (approximately -0.3 diopters [D]) was found in the 2020 school-based photoscreenings compared with previous years (2015-2019) for younger children aged 6 (-0.32 D), 7 (-0.28 D), and 8 (-0.29 D) years. The prevalence of myopia in the 2020 photoscreenings was higher than the highest prevalence of myopia within 2015-2019 for children aged 6 (21.5% vs 5.7%), 7 (26.2% vs 16.2%), and 8 (37.2% vs 27.7%) years. The differences in spherical equivalent refraction and the prevalence of myopia between 2020 and previous years were minimal in children aged 9 to 13 years. Home confinement during the COVID-19 pandemic appeared to be associated with a significant myopic shift for children aged 6 to 8 years according to 2020 school-based photoscreenings. However, numerous limitations warrant caution in the interpretation of these associations, including use of noncycloplegic refractions and lack of orthokeratology history or ocular biometry data. Younger children's refractive status may be more sensitive to environmental changes than older ages, given the younger children are in a critical period for the development of myopia.

Clinical Study on the Influence of Eye Care Habits on Myopia in School-age Children

In order to explore the relationship between the habit of using eyes and myopia, summarize and put forward to develop good habit of using eyes of school-age children to achieve the purpose of preventing myopia. 960 school-age children aged 7 to 12 were selected from the ophthalmology clinic of Fujian Provincial Government Hospital. The data collected included reading distance, sleep time, average daily outdoor activity time, average daily continuous eye use time. Ophthalmologists are responsible for visual examination, which includes mild myopia, moderate myopia and severe myopia. SPSS 22.0 statistical software was used for data processing. As a results, P &lt; 0.05 was statistically significant. There are significant differences in the distribution of sleep time among the three groups (P &lt; 0.05); There are significant differences in the time distribution of each continuous close eye use among the three groups (P &lt; 0.05); There are significant differences in the distribution of distance habit among the three groups (P &lt; 0.05); There are significant differences in the distribution of outdoor activity time among the three groups (P &lt; 0.05).Myopia is closely related to the time of close eye use, the distance of eye use, the length of sleep and the length of outdoor activities.

Некоторые особенности развития миопии у детей школьного возраста

Purpose. To assess the risk factors for the development and progression of myopia in children attending schools in a large city and to determine the possibilities of its prevention on an outpatient basis. Material and Methods. The study includes 106 children attending schools in St. Petersburg (60 boys and 46 girls, 56.6% and 43.4%, respectively). The observation period was 3 years. All examinations were supplemented by questioning the parents of the examined children. Results. Most often, myopia was detected during a routine examination at school (58.5%). Primary visits more often took place in the city diagnostic centre (34%) and in private medical centres (34%). At the same time, families with one child more often visited the district polyclinic (50%), less often – the city diagnostic centre (43.7%), families with two children more often came to private medical centres (50%). When analyzing the questionnaire, it was revealed that a number of questions have prognostic significance for assessing the course of myopia. The subsequent analysis of these questions identified the most significant risk factors for the development and progression of myopia in school-age children. These factors were physical activity of a child and regulated daily routine. The study investigated the incidence of myopia in children with comorbid conditions. Pathology of the musculoskeletal system prevailed (42.3%) in children with mild myopia, while pathology of ENT organs prevailed in children with moderate myopia (33.3%), posture disorders (27.7%) and ARVI (22.2%). An analysis of the prognostic value of risk factors for the development and progression of myopia showed that the only statistically reliable factors were disorders of the child‘s daily routine and the absence of a permanent ophthalmologist. Conclusion. The primary detection of myopia in school children is more frequent (58.5%) during preventive examinations at school. Questionnaires from parents provide additional information on the risk factors for myopia development and progression in their children. Myopia disorders and lack of observation by a «permanent» ophthalmologist have the greatest impact on myopia, which should naturally be taken into account when working with children and their parents. Key words: myopia, progression, risk factors, questionnaires, schoolchildren.

Age-Related Change of Axial Length, Spherical Equivalent, and Prevalence of Myopia and High Myopia in School-Age Children in Shanghai: 2014–2018

Purpose. To investigate the age-related change of axial length (AL), spherical equivalent (SE), and prevalence of myopia and high myopia in children at 7–18-year-olds in Shanghai in 2014 and 2018, respectively. Methods. This was an observational study in Shanghai. The same 3 schools were selected in 2014 and 2018, respectively. AL, SE, prevalence of myopia and high myopia, height, and weight were measured. A questionnaire regarding the lifestyles was completed. Results. Mean age was smaller in 2018 than in 2014 (P&lt;0.001), and mean AL was shorter in 2018 than in 2014 (P=0.003), whereas mean SE was greater in 2018 than in 2014 (P&lt;0.001). The prevalence of myopia and high myopia was lower in 2018 than in 2014 (P&lt;0.001andP=0.013, respectively). Mean AL increased with age from 7-year-olds to 18-year-olds in 2014 and 2018 (bothP&lt;0.001), respectively. Mean SE decreased with age in 2014 and 2018 (bothP&lt;0.001), respectively. The prevalence of myopia and high myopia increased with age in 2014 and 2018 (allP&lt;0.001), respectively. Less mean time outdoors and more mean time of study of all children were observed in 2018 than in 2014 (P=0.018andP&lt;0.001, respectively). Conclusion. This study shows normative growth values for AL and SE in Shanghai children at the age of 7–18-year-olds, as well as the age-specific prevalence of myopia and high myopia.

Myopia in school-aged children with preterm birth: the roles of time spent outdoors and serum vitamin D

AimsTo analyse the factors associated with myopia in school-aged children with preterm birth and with or without retinopathy of prematurity (ROP).MethodsChildren born prematurely between January 2010 and December 2011 were...

School-based epidemiology study of myopia in Tianjin, China

PurposeTo study the epidemiology of myopia in school-aged children in Tianjin and the relationship between visual acuity-based screening and refraction-based screening.MethodThis school-based prospective cohort study was performed on children from 42 elementary schools and 17 middle schools in Tianjin, China. Totally 14,551 children, ages ranging from 5 to 16 years, were included in this study. Uncorrected visual acuity (UCVA) was determined by logarithmic tumbling E chart. Non-cycloplegic photorefraction was examined by the Spot (v2.1.4) photoscreener. The relationship between the UCVA and refractive error was investigated for different age groups.ResultsThe overall prevalence of myopia at this school based screen is 78.2%, ranged from 10% at age of 5 to 95% at age of 16. The most dramatic increase in prevalence is from age of 6 (14.8%) to age of 7 (38.5%). The overall prevalence of high myopia is 2.5%. UCVA is found corresponding to spherical equivalent refraction (SER) in a manner of normal distribution and is significantly affected by age. When using UCVA to estimate the prevalence of myopia, the overall sensitivity and specificity are 0.824 and 0.820, respectively. Age-dependent optimal cutoff points and 95% confident intervals of such estimation are reported.ConclusionsMyopia is heavily affecting school-aged children in Tianjin, China. The refraction screening is preferable for myopia screening, whereas the UCVA screening results need to be interpreted in an age-dependent manner for myopia estimation.