Mycological Contamination Research Articles

Mycological contamination of cabin filters as a potential source of air pollution inside passenger vehicles

Mycological contamination of cabin filters as a potential source of air pollution inside passenger vehicles

High Prevalence of Mycotoxigenic Fungi and Aflatoxin B1 Contamination in Corn and Wheat Grains Grown to Albania: Implications for Food Safety

Background: Today, mycotoxins are considered critical contaminants in foodstuffs produced by fungi, highlighting the importance of food safety to human health. The toxigenic fungi invasion and mycotoxin production are highly variable and depend on climate, plant, and agronomic practices. Among these, Aflatoxins (AFs) are considered the most potent toxins. This study investigated the fungi presence and AFB1 contamination in corn and wheat grown in Albania during the 2022 harvesting year.
 Methods: Wheat samples were collected during the summer, while corn during the autumn, and further analyzed. Mycological contamination assessment applied the Verband Deutscher Landëirtschaftlicher Untersuchungs ̶ und Forschungsanstalten (VDLUFA) procedures. The AFB1 levels were measured using the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) method. The MATLAB R2016b software was applied to perform statistical analysis. The Estimated Daily Intake on AFB1 was calculated to evaluate human exposure.
 Results: The genera Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Penicillium were isolated, with higher rates of contamination in corn and the highest frequency Penicillium genus (77.89%). The Korça region presented a higher fungal load, 104 Colony Forming Unit (CFU)/g in corn. The AFB1 incidence (88.23%) in corn, was significantly higher than in wheat (4.91%). Additionally, the maximum level in corn was found 69.120 μg/kg, while in wheat, only 0.402 μg/kg. None of the wheat samples, in contrast to the 41.18% of corn samples, exceeded the threshold when referring to the respective Maximum Residue Levels.
 Conclusions: Our observation indicates a higher rate of AFB1 contamination in corn than in wheat. The high concentration levels and contamination incidence in corn require targeted interventions to reduce the AFB1 amounts. Strengthened regulation based on scientific evidence can reduce contamination outbreaks, economic implications, and potential benefits, such as increased consumer trust. Our study indicates that the exposure to AFB1 originates from corn consumption among the adult population

Improving chemical, rheological and sensory properties of commercial low-fat cream by concentrate addition of whey proteins

The present study was conducted to determine the effect of whey protein concentrate (WPC) addition on the commercial low-fat cream's chemical, rheological and sensory properties. WPC was added to the low-fat cream (10% fat) in ratios of 1.0, 2.5, and 5.0% to represent the treatments C1, C2, and C3, respectively.In addition, a fat-rich, positive control treatment (C +) with a fat percentage of 30% and a negative low-fat control treatment (C-) with a fat percentage of 10% were investigated without adding WPC. Chemical tests were carried out, including the percentage of moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrates, total acidity, and pH, as well as rheological tests that included; hardness, springiness, and Cohesiveness. Also, a sensory evaluation was conducted. The results showed a decrease in the moisture percentage of the added treatments with the increment of the added WPC quantity. Also, a decrease in the fat percentage and pH of the WPC addition treatments was observed, combined with an increment in the percentage of protein, carbohydrates, ash, and total acidity. Regarding the microbiological properties, no bacterial or mycological contamination was observed during the manufacturing and storage periods. The results also showed the improvement of rheological and sensory characteristics by increasing the percentage of WPC addition compared with the positive and negative control treatments. The present study would be helpful in the production of low-fat cream fortified with whey proteins with high nutritional value.

Prevalence and colonization of fungi in dried food (garri) obtained from Ikere-Ekiti

Garri is consumed by several millions of people in the West African sub-region and in Nigeria in particular, regardless of ethnicity and socio-economic class. However, production and handling methods have not been standardized resulting in garri product with varying mycological contamination. The objective of this study was to assess the mycological safety and mycological contamination of garri marketed in Ikere-Ekiti, Ekiti State. A total of eight (8) samples of garri displayed in the open at Ikere-Ekiti markets were used for this study. The samples were collected with sterile polythene bags adopting standard procedures and transported to the laboratory for analysis. The result of this study clearly showed fungal contamination resulting from its display in the open market, Aspergillus spp. and Mucor sp. had the highest frequency of occurrence and Aspergillus spp. was the fungi most frequently isolated. Other fungi species isolated in the garri samples were Absidia spp., Botrytis spp., Penicillium spp. and Rhizopus spp. Since this product harbor arrays of fungi, strategy to antagonize their growth and survival in this commodity in order to neutralize the potential of these organisms serving as agents of food borne diseases should be adopted.

Hygienic assessment of mycological contamination of the internal environment of residential and public buildings

The paper presents the results of a comprehensive hygienic assessment of the fungal contamination of the internal environment of the premises of residential and public buildings and developed proposals for the methodology for conducting mycological examination of indoor air and building structures. 
 Materials and methods. The objects of research were urban atmospheric air, residential apartments, and office premises with and without fungal infection of wall structures, medical premises for various purposes. The studies included determination of the number of microscopic fungi in 1 m3 of air (CFU/m3); determination of the content of viable fungal flora in scrapings and in swabs from places suspected of having a fungal infection; measurements of humidity of enclosing structures and microclimatic parameters of the indoor air environment; evaluation of the ventilation system. 
 Results. The concentration of microscopic fungi in indoor air without fungal infection of wall structures was shown to depend on fungal pollution of atmospheric air. The peak of fungal air pollution in unaffected rooms and the ambient air, was detected over the spring-summer season. In residential apartments and office premises of public buildings with fungal infection of wall structures, the content of microscopic fungi in the air, regardless of the season, was tens and hundreds of times higher than the content of fungal flora in the air of “healthy” premises and in the atmospheric air. Fungal air pollution in residential and office premises is mainly associated with fungi of the Penicillium, Aspergillus, Cladosporium and Rizopus genera in wards, treatment and diagnostic rooms – yeast-like fungi of the genus Candida. 
 Limitations. The results of the study do not apply to the production facilities of biological industry enterprises, livestock and poultry complexes.
 Conclusion. The necessity of conducting a mycological examination of premises has been substantiated, and a draft of methodological recommendations for conducting mycological examinations of indoor air and building structures has been developed.

Quality control and mycotoxin levels in food in the Palestinian market

ABSTRACT A total of 51 food samples (18 rice, 17 wheat flour, and 16 nuts) were randomly collected from different shops and analysed for the presence of total aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisins, using a lateral flow competitive immunochromatographic assay method. Mycological contamination (total aerobic and fungi count), colour index (L*a*b*) and moisture content were also evaluated. Sensory characteristics for mycotoxins contaminated and uncontaminated samples of rice and wheat flour were evaluated by 40 panellists. Forty-five per cent of all samples were positive for aflatoxins as the most occurred mycotoxins, with a range of 2–8.1 μg/kg. Fungal counts were not significantly different between contaminated and uncontaminated rice and wheat flour samples. In addition, panellists were able to discriminate between contaminated and uncontaminated rice samples by detection of mouldy flavour, spoilage symptoms, earthy flavour, and the degree of freshness.

Conducting a comprehensive mycological study to prevent the occurrence of aspergillosis in chickens

Diseases of poultry aspergillosis are recorded in many poultry farms, the causes of the disease are the violation of the sanitary and hygienic conditions of hatcheries and poultry houses (unfavorable microclimate, affected feed and litter by microscopic fungi). To prevent the development of infection, it is necessary to control air pollution and equipment in hatcheries; determine the safety indicators of feed and water (the level of their mycological contamination) in poultry houses; monitor the status of feed storage facilities and water supply systems. According to the results of our research, in 15.1% of dead chickens at the age of 3 to 5 days and 6.6% at the age of 7-10 days, according to the results of mycological examination of pathological material, the diagnosis of aspergillosis was established. Aspergillus flavus (47%) Aspergillus fumigatus (34.5%), Aspergillus niger (10%) were isolated from the lungs of dead chickens. Macroscopically revealed edema and hyperemia of the lungs in chickens of 3-5 days of age. The formation of granulomas in the lungs and serous membranes was not detected, which may indicate an acute form of the pathological process. Chickens 7-10 days old showed a strong thickening of the air sacs, lungs with multiple spherical granulomas up to 2 mm in diameter. Spores of fungi entering the lungs cause a local inflammatory reaction - acute pneumonia. Histologically, in chickens of 3-5 days of age, a thickening of the parabronchial wall due to hyperplasia of local lymphoid formations (providing local immunity), signs of the development of interstitial pneumonia were revealed. Pathognomonic signs were found in the parenchyma - the formation of giant multinucleated cells, which is a characteristic sign of mycotic infections in poultry. The fusion of local pulmonary macrophages, histiocytes, into multinucleated cells is a prerequisite for the formation of granulomas, being a specific immune response in birds to the penetration of a pathogen. According to the development of the infectious process, caseous granulomas and fungal hyphae can be detected microscopically in the lungs. According to the results of histological examination, the formation of mycotic granulomas was found in the lung parenchyma in 7-10 days old chickens, which was accompanied by the formation of a zone of coagulation necrosis, in which the fungal hyphae were found. On the periphery, giant multinucleated epithelioid cells are located, the detection of which by histological examination is the basis for suspecting bird infection with microscopic fungi. Microscopic fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus fumigatus have been found in washes from hatchery ventilation cabinets, and Aspergillus flavus was found in the air from the chick sorting room and in washes from the feed mixer. Key words: aspergillosis, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, micromycete, mold fungi, histiocytes, granulomas, phylaids, conidia, hyphae.

Mycotoxins in red wine: Occurrence and risk assessment

Mycological contamination of food products is a common problem in the food industry, associated with implications for consumer health. Red wine is regarded as an alcoholic beverage with health benefits, notably for the circulatory system. However, in spite of its health-promoting properties, it can also be a source of toxic substances. Wine is a documented source of ochratoxin A, which is one of the ubiquitous, highly toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. It is the only mycotoxin for which a regulatory maximum level in wine has been established. There are no legal regulations on the content of other mycotoxins in wine, as a product with an increased risk of mycological contamination, and so their levels are not monitored. The aim of this study was to determine the concentrations of ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON) as well as T-2 and HT-2 toxins in dry red wines. The study included 19 wines originating from Spain, France and Poland, from both conventional and organic viticulture. Mycotoxin levels were determined using immunoenzymatic assays (ELISA). The pH values were determined by potentiometric method. In all of the wines included in the study, mycotoxin levels exceeded the applicable limits. The levels of OTA and DON contamination were associated with the country of origin, and ochratoxin A was additionally linked to the farming method and certification status. The content of T-2 and HT-2 toxins was the only parameter to be negatively correlated with pH. In conclusion, wine may provide a source of many mycotoxins, not only OTA but also DON T-2 and HT-2 toxins, which was shown for the first time, and it appears further research is required to establish reference values for various mycotoxins in a wider range of foodstuffs, including wine.

Mycotoxicolgical evaluation of indigenous varieties of wheat from Quetta, Balochistan, Pakistan.

Abstract 
 The present study was designed to investigate the mycological contamination and aflatoxigenic potential of fungi isolated from the indigenous certified varieties of wheat. Surface spread method was used to determine mycological contamination whereas to determine the toxigenic potential of isolated fungi and screening of wheat grains for aflatoxin contamination thin layer chromatography was used. All the collected samples revealed fungal contamination however none of the fungal isolate showed aflatoxigenic potential. Similarly all the samples showed negativity for aflatoxin. It can be concluded that for human public health, cereal grains must be subjected to quality control and mycotoxicologicalexaminations.

Occurrence of filamentous fungi isolated from matured blue cheese

Abstract Matured blue cheese can be made from cow's milk associated with the inoculated fungus Penicillium roqueforti, which guarantees specific sensorial characteristics. Recently, Brazil’s fine cheese production and consumption have increased by more than 200%, highlighting the relevance of microbiological quality control of these products. Fungal contaminations are responsible for significant losses in cheese production and provide a suitable environment for mycotoxins production, constituting a hazard to public health. In this work, we evaluated the mycological contamination profile of matured blue cheeses commercialized in Brazil. Samples of ten different brands were analyzed by serial dilution method, by plating in the Dicloran Rose of Bengal Chloramphenicol (DRBC) culture medium and Dicloran Glycerol Medium Base (DG18). Subsequently, different fungi morphotypes were isolated and morphologically identified. As a result, 461 fungi were isolated and identified, notably Aspergillus aculeatus, Penicillium roqueforti and Penicillium solitum. All samples were contaminated by filamentous fungi, amongst those, many already reported as mycotoxin producers, which underlines the relevance of microbiological monitoring.

Mycological assesment of quail meat in Menufia governorate ,Egypt .

This study was conducted to assess the mycological contamination of quail carcasses in Monofia governorate,. Total of 100 samples of fresh and frozen quail meat were taken from breast and thigh (50 of each) with skin and without skin (25 of each) from different retail shops for mycological examination and mycotoxin residues. The obtained results revealed that the highly contaminated samples in Mold and Yeast counts were in frozen quail meat of thigh with and without skin ones ( 1.21× 106± 4.59 × 105 , 1.77 ×106± 6.72× 105) &( 1.76× 106± 5.65× 105, 9.79× 105± 4.54× 105 ) (cfu/g), respectively. Furthermore, the highest incidence of mold serotypes was Aspergillus spp. Specially A. flavus in all samples . On the other hand , mycotoxins residue was higher in frozen samples than fresh ones. Breast without skin samples were the highest in mycotoxin residues than others (7.3±0.04, 3.8±0.04 ,1.9±0.02)(ug/l)for B1 , B2 and G1 in both fresh and frozen samples , respectively. The public health importance of these contamination and the suggestive hygienic measures to improve the quality and safety of quail meat were discussed.

Evaluation of Microbiological Contamination of Black and Green Teas

The study aimed to determine the level of microbial contamination of black and green teas with different degrees of fragmentation. The microbiological analysis we conducted on 18 black and green teas available commercially on the market. Solutions were prepared from the weighed samples and then inoculated on sterile microbial media. Teas in bags proved to be the most polluted among the tested tea groups. Statistical analysis indicated significant differences in mycological contamination between black and green teas of various degrees of fragmentation. Green tea in bags manifested the highest fungal contamination - 9.3×10³ CFU/g, significantly exceeding the other teas. Isolated fungi belonged to <em>Aspergillus</em> sp., <em>Cryptococcus</em> sp., <em>Rhizopus</em> sp., <em>Mucor</em> sp., </em>Penicillium</em> sp. and <em>Cladosporium</em> sp. The lowest number of fungi we observed in the group of green leaf teas -1.7×10² CFU/g. We recorded the most significant amount of Gram-positive bacteria in deciduous black tea - 1.8×10³ CFU/g. The correlation between the degree of tea fragmentation and their microbial contamination has been demonstrated. Potentially pathogenic bacteria isolated from black and green tea can pose a threat to the health of consumers.

Mycological Assessment of Marketed Duck Meat in El-Kaliobia Governorate Markets

This study was conducted to evaluate the mycological contamination of duck carcasses, and its hazards on public health. A total of two hundred meat samples of duck meat were taken from chilled and frozen breast and thigh (100 of each) that were collected from supermarkets in El- Kaliobia governorate for mycological examination. The mean values of yeast and mold count of the examined chilled samples were 3.1×102 ±0.02×10 (cfu/g) and 5.5 ×102 ±0.4×10 (cfu/g) in breast and thigh, respectively. Also, those frozen samples had mean values of 3.0×102 ±0.3×10 (cfu/g) and 6.0×102± 0.4×10 (cfu/g) for breast and thigh, respectively. PCR ampilication was resulted in (3) toxigenic strains of A.flavus, A.fumigatus and A.niger were isolated from examined samples. Aflatoxin residues were detected in breast and thigh of 0.26 and 0.33 ng/g. Thus, strict hygienic precautions during processing of duck products should be adopted to reduce mold contamination and mycotoxin production .

Microbially Contaminated Water in Urban Fountains as a Hidden Source of Infections

Decorative fountains are a common element of urban architecture and are frequently used by inhabitants as recreational water reservoirs. The presence of potentially pathogenic microorganisms in the water, as well as lack of sanitary and epidemiological supervision over such objects, poses a risk of acquiring a water‐borne infection. Hence, the aim of the study is to assess the microbiological and mycological contamination of fountain water. Water samples are collected from 10 fountains located in the city of Lodz (Poland), in 2016 twice: June/July (first sampling period) and September (second sampling period). Bacteriological analysis of water samples is carried out in accordance with standard procedures of the Commission Directive (EU) 2015/1787. Additionally, the material is examined for the presence of potentially pathogenic microscopic fungi by standard mycological protocols. In the first sampling period, 15.6% Escherichia coli and 74.3% of other coliform bacteria are detected in total isolates, while coliform bacteria accounts for 43.8% and E. coli 5.6% of the total in samples taken in September. In addition, 82 strains of fungi are isolated from the water samples, which are classified into yeasts (5 species) and filamentous fungi (17 species). Of the isolated fungi, 36.4% are potential pathogens from biosafety level 2 (BSL‐2). Aspergillus fumigatus is dominant among filamentous fungi and Candida albicans among yeasts. Contaminated fountains are hidden sources of infection for humans and represent an epidemiological problem of public health. The presence of fecal bacteria and fungal species classified into BSL‐2 in the fountain water indicates the need to introduce seasonal microbiological monitoring and implement legal regulations regarding its sanitary condition.

Application of an environmentally friendly preventive measure for the preservation of fresh vegetables

Vegetables are an important source of vitamins and minerals and are one of the most perishable products. Fresh vegetables need to be cleaned, sorted, washed and dried before entering distribution and trading systems. The quality of the product and the effect of the environment during preparation are very important. One method of stabilizing vegetable quality is the application of ozone, which is a strong disinfectant used to inactivate microorganisms. Ozone, when in contact with a product surface, does not leave any harmful by-products. This research aims to optimize carrot treatment with ozonated water and evaluate its effect and efficiency on the storage of products. A constant concentration of 1.53 ± 0.09mgL-1 ozone in water was used, and processing times of 5, 10, 15 and 20min were applied. The carrots' weight and changes to the mould population on the carrots' surface during storage were observed after treatment with ozonated water. A decrease in mycological contamination on washable vegetable surfaces occurred within the first 5min, and longer processing times (more than 5min) did not influence the efficacy of the treatment. Thus, using ozonated water at an ozone concentration of 1.53 ± 0.09mgL-1 reduced the mould population by up to 99.99% and could also prolong carrot storage duration up to 1.7 times. Treatment of carrots with ozonated water had minimal impact on the carrots' weight.

Mycological Evaluation and Mycotoxin Contamination of Swine and Poultry Feed-Shelf Life Assessment in Makurdi, Nigeria

Mycological Evaluation and Mycotoxin Contamination of Swine and Poultry Feed-Shelf Life Assessment in Makurdi, Nigeria

Using acid and alkaline electrolyzed water to reduce deoxynivalenol and mycological contaminations in wheat grains

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a worldwide cereal contaminant, is mainly produced by Fusarium spp.. It not only affects the cereal quality reducing the end-use, but also poses a serious threat to food and feed safety. In order to protect human and animal health and reduce economic losses, it is important to find ways to reduce DON and mycological contamination. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of acid electrolyzed water (AcidEW) and alkaline electrolyzed water (AlkEW) with different pH values on eliminating DON and inactivating fungi in naturally contaminated wheat grains. Both AcidEW and AlkEW showed great activity on the elimination of DON and mycological contamination. The optimal pH values of AcidEW and AlkEW for DON elimination were 5.5 and 9.5, respectively. Afterwards, effects of pH 5.5 AcidEW and pH 9.5 AlkEW on F. graminearum and qualities of wheat grains were observed. AcidEW and AlkEW displayed better activity on reducing F. graminearum than pure water. Both AcidEW and AlkEW had no effect on the moisture, crude protein, wet gluten, whiteness and microstructure of wheat grains, as compared with the pure water. Moreover, AcidEW could improve farinograph property of wheat grains. Therefore, either AcidEW or AlkEW can be as a novel method to reduce DON and fungal contaminations, especially, AcidEW.

Risk of Fungal Infection to Dental Patients.

Fungi can cause various diseases, and some pathogenic fungi have been detected in the water of dental equipment. This environment offers suitable conditions for fungal biofilms to emerge, which can facilitate mycological contamination. This study verified whether the water employed in the dental units of two dental clinics at the University of Franca was contaminated with fungi. This study also evaluated the ability of the detected fungi to form biofilms. The high-revving engine contained the largest average amount of fungi, 14.93 ± 18.18 CFU/mL. The main fungal species verified in this equipment belonged to the genera Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp., Candida spp., and Rhodotorula spp. Among the isolated filamentous fungi, only one fungus of the genus Fusarium spp. did not form biofilms. As for yeasts, all the Candida spp. isolates grew as biofilm, but none of the Rhodotorula spp. isolates demonstrated this ability. Given that professionals and patients are often exposed to water and aerosols generated by the dental procedure, the several fungal species detected herein represent a potential risk especially to immunocompromised patients undergoing dental treatment. Therefore, frequent microbiological monitoring of the water employed in dental equipment is crucial to reduce the presence of contaminants.

MYCOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION OF AIR ASSESSED AT MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS

Aim. The aim of the study was to investigate the epidemiological peculiarities of mycological contamination of air at medical institutions. Materials and methods. Microbiological study was carried out in different rooms of medical institutions ( n = 454) using methodical guide MUK 4.2.2942-11 «Methods of sanitary-bacteriological studies of environment, air and control of sterility at medical institutions». Results. On the basis of the obtained data, epidemiological characteristic of dynamics of detecting the samples not corresponding to sanitary and hygienic standards was presented. It was established that during the whole period of studies, growth of fungi of different types was found in 35,9 ± 2,3 % of cases. Conclusions. These studies testify the necessity of developing additional measures for reduction of mycological contamination of air at medical institutions during the periods of maximum risk for occurrence of health care-associated infections.

Isolation and identification of common fungal spp. from commercial broiler feeds available in market of Sylhet District, Bangladesh

The present study was designed to investigate the mycological contamination of commercial broiler feeds used in poultry establishments in sylhet, Bangladesh. The feed samples of commercial broiler feed (Starter, Grower and Finisher) were collected from the different areas of Sylhet district. A total of 189 commercial broiler feed samples where 63 Starter, 63 Grower and 63 Finisher were collected from the different areas of local market in Sylhet. The selected areas were Kadamtali, Shibjong, Khadim, Kamal Bazar, Dakshin Surma, Fenchugonj. From the feed samples analyzed for the presence of fungal agents, 144 (76.2%) were found positive for one or more fungal species. Fungal isolates were found among 36 (57%) of the 63 Starter feed samples, 45 (71.4%) of the 63 Grower feed samples and 63 (100%) of the 63 Finisher feed samples. The fungal agents isolated from Broiler Starter Feeds, Aspergillus spp. 51 (70.8%) has the highest frequency of occurrence, followed by Fuserium spp. 12 (16.7%) and least is Rhizopus sp. 9(12.5%). Similarly, in case of Broiler Grower Feeds, Aspergillus spp. 66 (68.8%) has the highest frequency of occurrence, followed by Fuserium spp. 18 (18.7%) and least is Rhizopus sp. 12(12.5%). In case of Broiler Finisher Feeds, Aspergillus spp. 90 (69.8%) has the highest rate of occurrence followed by Fuserium spp. 24 (18.6%) and least is Rhizopus sp. 15 (11.6%) respectively.International Journal of Natural Sciences (2014), 4(2) 38-41