Muslim Era Research Articles

THE ORIGINS OF GANCH COMPOSITIONS WITH OYNAVAND-O’UMA IN THE INTERIORS OF UZBEKISTAN AND GEORGIA

Ganch (fired clay ceramics with gypsum) has long been an integral part of the interior and exterior decoration for appropriate buildings to make them stand out. First of all, these are classy palaces, Buddhist traditional harem-type buildings in Western and Central Asia and other mosques, madrasas, mausoleums and minarets in some Oriental cultures associated with Islam. In particular, in the territories of Khorasan (now a part of modern Uzbekistan, was Iran, referred to as some kingdoms sort of the Bukhara emirate). The goal is to establish the origins of oynavand-o’uma, (stucco network decorations made of alumina with coloured powders and shiny pearl or mirror elements), which are genetically related to monuments in Uzbekistan and Georgia of the 5th/7th–19th centuries. The following methods were used in this study: analysis, generalisation and systematisation. The study highlighted that in the pre-Arabic period of the Iranian-speaking tribes of the Eftalites and Bukharhudates, who were simultaneously influenced by Buddhist and Greco-Byzantine cultures, the phenomenon of a local plastic canon was formed, which laid the foundation for the development of carved alabaster and plaster, which further developed without a figurative component during the Muslim era and spread to Asian lands until the time of the Turkic-Persian Qajar dynasty, reaching not only Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, but also Georgia. The study also discussed the specific features of art education in the context of preserving and developing the cultural heritage of the regions. The findings of this study can be used by specialists in the field of studying the evolution of the plastic canon of monumental and decorative art of certain Eastern countries, experts in the scientific restoration and reconstruction of oriental visions of the synthesis of painting with ganch and mirrors, as well as teachers of the history of oriental culture.

Genesis of Education System in Bangladesh

The education system in Bangladesh is primarily derived from the British colonial legacy, imposing a secular philosophy despite a majority Muslim population. This article critically examines the roots and historical development of the education system in Bangladesh, discussing its basic structure and framework while presenting chronological narratives. The study seeks to comprehend prevailing trends by employing content analysis involving historical records, government documents, study reports, and expert opinions. The findings reveal a consistent neglect of religious education at all levels, lacking a foundation in Islamic philosophy. The study traces the curriculum’s evolution from the early Muslim era to current times. Despite efforts to incorporate Islamic education during the Pakistan period and the post-independence era, these initiatives largely faltered. Post-independence, the recommendations of various education commissions primarily reflect the intentions of ruling powers, lacking consistency and failing to incorporate universal values into education policy. The study advocates for a comprehensive review of education policies, curriculum frameworks, and textbooks, emphasizing the identification of gaps and the incorporation of moral and ethical values to foster the balanced growth of individuals.

অসাম্প্রদায়িক বাংলাদেশ প্রতিষ্ঠায় সুফি ভাবধারার প্রভাব

The Sufi Saints played an important role to preach Islam in Bangladesh as well as South Asia. There are a lot of evidences about Shahaba (Companions of Prophet Sm.) came South Asia and Bangladesh for spreading Islam in the 7th Century. Next Centuries, hundreds of Sufis and their followers came for preaching Islam and spread over across the South Asia. Their excellent characteristics, strong morality, devotion, deep sense of humanity and serve to the poor people attracted non-Muslim people of this region. Generosity, equality and rich Islamic culture inspired local people to embrace new religion Islam. Interaction of South Asian Culture and Islamic Culture made a new dimension of Culture and Ethics in the Society. In Indian Society, Caste System of the Hindu, oppress to Subaltern people and humiliating abolished gradually. Even though, Reform movement of Hinduism and eradicate aristocracy system of the Hindu Society has started to free from Islamic influence. Education system opened for all during the Sultanate period in India. A new dimension of society and culture make amicable relations between the Hindu and Muslim of South Asia as well as Bangladesh. This Religious co-existing and harmony made South Asia a new mentality which called Communal Harmony. Non-Sectarian ideology inspired Muslim rulers to govern their territory. The Sufism and Sufi saints helped the rulers to make communal Harmony in the society. Communal harmony and social consistency were the vital roles of Muslim era in South Asia. In Nineteenth Century, rise of Sufi Saint and spiritual leader Mowlana Sayed Ahamed Ullah Mizbhandari (k.) (1826—1906) influenced society vividly. His philosophy and Mizbhandari Tariqa Played an important role in the Politics, Society and Culture of Bangladesh. Specially seven Ushal system, Mizbhandari mystic songs and no- Communal ideology inspired all sorts of peoples like the Hindu and Muslim. This research paper examines the influence of the Mizbhandari and other Sufi Tariqa in preaching Islam, Politics, Society and Culture of Bangladesh and South Asia. It also assesses any role of Sufism and Sufis thought to make non- Communal and moderate Bangladesh.

Worldview, Strategy, and Strategic Principles in Three Muslim Military Treatises

This study looks into the origins of strategy in Islām and its development from metaphysical, historiographical, and textual perspectives. Corresponding “strategy” with the terms siyāsah, ḥiyal, and tadbīr in Muslim lexicology, it uses semantic field analysis to examine how the term and concept have been used by the Muslims, particularly within the Sunnī-Ashʿarite metaphysical framework. Historiographical method is used to examine the development of strategy from pre-Islamic times, during the Prophetic period, and in the significant periods of the ʿAbbasid-Ayyūbid partnership and the beginning of the Timūrid era. The study also examines the text of three Muslim military treatises, each representing a different Muslim era in order to postulate the existence of an Islamic military tradition. Finally, the study analyses interpretatively the recurrent themes across the selected works and summarises them into strategic principles.

Hadhramaut Arabs in the Malay World: Features of Naturalization and Social Status

In island Southeast Asia, since the first centuries of the Muslim era, the Hadhramaut Arab diaspora has been steadily present. Arabs controlled maritime trade south of the Arabian Peninsula since pre-Islamic times. They have long traded with India, and sometimes sailed even further to their cherished goal - the Spice Islands (Moluccas). With the advent of Islam, the presence of Arabs in the ports of the Archipelago increased and was generally perceived positively: they acted as bearers and preachers of the new religion. Over time, their business contacts with the local merchant community grew stronger. The most powerful influx of Arabs to Nusantara dates back to the beginning of the 18th century. Subsequently, with the opening of the Suez Canal (1869), this process gained even greater scope. Over the years, the aliens, step by step, won a place for themselves in the field of commerce, in agriculture and shipbuilding, Islamic preaching and diplomacy, education and politics. Some of them laid the foundation for new Malay dynasties (the sultanates of Siak and Kalimantan, 18th century) or simply entered the circle close to local rulers. Since the beginning of the twentieth century Arab merchants participate in the organization of the first political parties in Indonesia. The paper briefly examines the biographies of some members of the Hadhramaut aristocracy, Sayyids and Sharifs, who took a prominent place in the cultural, economic and political life of Malaysia and Indonesia in the pre-colonial and post-colonial era.

English 1. Analytical Study of the Historical Contribution of Muslims in Horticulture During 800-1250 AD

In Islamic history, horticulture had a prominent place in the Muslim era. The Arabs planted gardens in Medina and Taif. In this sense, gardens were an important source of food and trade. Leaving Arabia, when Islam reached Persia and Syria and Egypt and Andalusia, Muslim kings and rulers planted gardens. They not only encouraged farmers but also took personal interest. The Arabs planted fruit trees abundantly in mountainous and desert areas. And when the canals were dug, fruit trees were planted along their banks. Palm groves were plentiful in the Hijaz and later planted in Iraq and Syria. During the Umayyad period, the fruit trade spread throughout Arabia. Similarly, when Muslims arrived in Andalusia, gardening was a common industry. From Abdur Rehman to the end, the rulers were fond of horticulture, thanks to which the cultivation of new plants was promoted and Muslim botanists played a vital role in the field of horticulture. This research paper mainly highlights and explains the role of Muslims in the field of horticulture and how they have strengthened this field with their research efforts and experiences.

E-4 An Analytical Study of the Development of Historiography in the world; A Case of Early Islamic Historiography

The history of the world began with human creation and consciousness. And with the passage of time came the expansion and innovation in historiography. The Greeks have credited with the formal beginning of historiography. Hycuts was the first person to start writing the events of history in a scattered manner. Herodotus later began the work of historiography on the basis of this effort. Herodotus was called the father of history. Similarly, historiography was transferred from the Greeks to the Romans and then the advent of Islam made historiography not just an art but an industry. Islamic historiography began during the Prophet's time when it was writing with Quran and Hadeth. Later several people started to write the biography of Prophet and many others. Among them Imam Zahri, Muhammad Bin Ishaq, Ibn-e-Hisham, Waqdi and many others. This paper is an attempt to highlight the basic concept of historiography and Islamic contribution in historiography during the early Muslim era to 350 A.H.

Wrapped Up: Talismanic Garments in Early Modern Islamic Culture

This study examines clothing inscribed with religious scripture and mystic symbols as a talisman in Early Modern Islamic culture. The objects include extant examples of talismanic clothing from Iran, Turkey, and India created between the late fifteenth century and mid-eighteenth centuries. The premise for scripture as talisman in Islam, the relationship between text and textile, and pre-Islamic relationships to cloth and spirituality in these regions are included in the discussion. Though recent scholarship accepts these textiles as protective devices worn on the battlefield, this study suggests several additional contexts for the use of these talismanic garments. In addition, Qur’an-inscribed garments that emerge as a phenomenon in the Early Modern period are examined in relation to the origin of talismanic clothing in the belief systems that preceded the Muslim era. Specifically addressing the traditions of Zoroastrian, Hindu, and Shamanistic Turkic religious practices, the relationship between cloth, thread, and sacred teachings is explored in relation to the later empires that emerged from these regions. Specific verses from the Qur’an are included as an analytic device for understanding the Islamic perception of textiles and garments on a literal and metaphorical level, as well as spiritual and political practices involving cloth and power.

Towards a more accurate definition of Early Datings according to the Muslim Era

Towards a more accurate definition of Early Datings according to the Muslim Era

Olive tree survival and adaptation to the harsh growing conditions in the arid desert environment of the Negev Highlands, Southern Israel

Twenty-three olive trees were found to grow in traditional orchard sites in the Negev Highlands desert, southern Israel. Their location was marked on maps, and their growth, morphology, biology, preservation and survival was monitored. Some of them are presently maintained by the Bedouin population of the Negev, whereas others seemed to have survived from earlier periods. The average annual rainfall in this region is 90–130 mm. Most of the orchards were deliberately planted in pre-existing agricultural plots, built during the Byzantine and Early Muslim era (3rd–8th centuries CE). They were irrigated by harvesting runoff water. The Byzantine era was the most populated period in the Negev Highlands, when wine and olive oil were the main horticultural products. A variety of domesticated fruit trees are found in the present abandoned orchards: olive, fig, grapevine, pomegranate, almond, date palm, carob, pistachio and bitter orange. The trees have not been artificially irrigated for at least seven decades. Nevertheless, most of them continue to flourish and bear fruit. We focused on understanding the abandoned olive trees’ survival and adaptation mechanisms. Olive trees growing was a favorite crop to Byzantine farmers due to the significant economic value of olive oil and good adaptation to the environmental conditions in the Negev Highlands.

Mapping Khwārazmian Connections in the History of Sufi Traditions

The history of Sufi traditions in Khwārazm reveals patterns of development that broadly correlate with patterns and alignments evident in the region’s social, political, and economic history; this is not unexpected, of course, but this correlation provides a convenient vantage point from which to explore Khwārazmian Sufi traditions, and it also lends significance to the literary and folkloric legacies of those traditions, which can illuminate aspects of Khwārazmian history for periods otherwise poorly represented in written sources. The present study offers a broad outline of Sufi activity in Khwārazm, from the 12th century to the 19th, noting the sometimes alternating, sometimes overlapping patterns of locally-rooted Sufi communities, deeply embedded in Khwārazmian social topography, and of regionally- and internationally-connected Sufi groups reflecting large-scale networks; in the latter case, particular attention is given to ‘mapping’ the links of Sufi communities based in Khwārazm with other groups – both in distinctive configurations of regional Central Asian frameworks (i.e., northern Khurāsān, Manghïshlāq, the Syr Daryā valley, the Dasht-i Qïpchāq), and in wider ‘global’ frameworks connecting Khwārazm with the broader Muslim world (the holy cities, Istanbul, Crimea, Kashmīr and India). Consideration of the initial phase of Sufi history in the region, in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, is followed by a focus on the sparse but significant evidence on Khwārazmian Sufis of the 14th and 15th centuries, perhaps the most poorly known era of Khwārazmian history in the Muslim era, and to the much richer source base for the flourishing of ‘Kubravī’ communities – in Khwārazm and in the regions closely connected with it – during the 16th century; the continuation of these patterns, but also the emergence of distinctively local Khwārazmian variants of other Sufi traditions (‘Yasavī’ and Naqshbandī), from the 17th century to the early 19th will also be addressed.

A Short Inquiry on the Perceptions of “Good Governance” in Shi‘a Religious Philosophy

In Shi‘a teachings, there is a principle of equitable governing and guidance through the implementation of the divine will of the Imam. While much religious tradition has rejected the idea that Iranian monarchs were the embodiment of the divine nature and that they were righteous rulers, there is little doubt that the Shi‘a ideas arose from imitating ancient Iranian religious traditions. This has been the basis of the popularity of Shi‘a doctrines within the Iranian society. Justice is one of the beliefs of Shi‘a religious and political thought that has been a significant addition to the five major pillars of Islam. It has also been one of the primary issues of ancient Iranian political thought that was imported into the political ideology of Islam in the Muslim era. The author discusses some points regarding this issue in Shi‘a religious philosophy.

Surgical principles of Ibn Sina (Avicenna)

Ibn Sina is one of the famous physicians of Muslim era. He is accepted as Physician par excellence. In his magnum opus, Al-Qanoon, he has collected all the knowledge of medicine from Hindu, Greek and Islamic sources known in tenth-century to eleventh centuries. It includes principles of surgery as well. Though we are not sure how much surgery he did himself as part of his memoirs are lost but he gives the idea of practice of Surgery of the period. In addition to anatomy, physiology and pathology he goes in the management of most surgical problems from head to toe. He is the first to describe the antiseptic properties of wine. We can also attribute to him the first description of Bennet’s fracture and his description of late splintage of fractures, now we now know as described by George Perkins. He had a great influence on the practice of medicine in the later centuries.Bangladesh Journal of Medical Science Vol.14(3) 2015 p.217-220

Critical Analysis of Educational Development during Muslim Era in Spain

Critical Analysis of Educational Development during Muslim Era in Spain

Globalization and the Muslim World

History indicates that before the coming of modern globalization, the Muslims had their own version of globalization. During the Muslim era of globalization which coincides with the Golden Age of the Muslims, the West benefited immensely from the scholastic works produced by Muslim scientists and scholars. Modern globalization which started during the era of Western colonization of the East has now gone to every nook and cranny of the world. The usage of internet and other modern electronic media directly or indirectly has speeded up the process of transporting modern globalization to the world community. Modern globalization has brought about radical change in aims of education; it has marginalized local culture and language; it has caused brain drain everywhere in the world. Muslims, it seems, are perceiving globalization as identical to re-colonization. This paper intends to explore and investigate how modern globalization heralded by the west is different from Muslim globalization in the past.

Fawa'Id Al-Fu'Ad of Khawaja Nizamuddin Auliya (Rahmatullah 'Alayh), Vol - I (Sessions 1 to 34) English Translation

In the Indo-Pak subcontinent the Muslim era began with the blessed personalities of the Auliya’ Kiram. Through those self less and pure hearted human beings Allah Almighty revived the fields of the dead hearts and selves and granted health to the spiritual patients. Through these sincere men of God and the persons disciplined by them Islam was vastly propagated in the far off areas and corners of the sub-Continent and millions of mankind were favoured with guidance. By their training such men of action came to the scene that in their respective periods blew the spirit of faith, certitude, and good action and played a leading role in the field of struggle. The usefulness of this group of the puritans, its services, and its impacts upon the society are preserved in the chronicles of the history of Islam.Among these selfless, pure hearted darwayshes (fuqara’ salihin) and the men of truthfulness there was a saint Sultan al-Masha’ikh Mahbub-i-Ilahi Hadrat Khawajah Nizamuddin Auliya’ (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ), who was born in the year 636 AH and died in the year 725 AH. He was of the highest rank of the perfect saints. The Chishtiyah Mystic Order was founded by Hadrat Khawajah Mu`inuddin Chishti Ajmeri (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ) but its real popularity is on account of Hadrat Khawajah Nizamuddin Auliya’ (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ). He was the murid-i-khass and Khalifah of Hadrat Baba Fariduddin Ganj Shakar (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ). He appointed many of his khulafa’ in various areas of the country whereby the propagation of Islam was made throughout the country. Undoubtedly, Khawajah Sahib has the pivotal role in the matter of spread of Islam and tasawwuf in India.Among those who were spiritually disciplined under the direct attention of Hadrat Khawajah Nizamuddin Auliya’ (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ) and later accepted by the people as the big saints were the personalities like Hadrat Amir Khusro, Shaykh Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlawi, and Amir Hasan `Ula Sanjari (رحمۃ اللہ علیہم اجمعین) .To get awareness of the teachings of Hadrat Khawajah Nizamuddin Auliya’ (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ) his malfuzat are available in the following collections, namely:1. Fawa’idul-Fuwad compiled by Amir Hasan `Ula Sanjari (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ) ;2. Afdalul-Fawa’id, attributed to Amir Khusro,3. Halat Hadrat Chishtiyyah, though most of its contents are only malfuzat and aqwal. 4. Khayr-ul-Majalis compiled by Hayder Qalandar, it also contains a huge quantity of the malfuzat of Khawajah Sahib.The collection before us is Urdu translation of the FAWA’IDUL-FUWAD (Persian) written by Amir Hasan `Ula Sanjarani (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ). This is the most famous book and Amir Khusro (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ) used to envy its compilation. These malfuzat consist of 188 Sessions/Assemblies w.e.f. 3 Sha`ban 2007 H to 20 Sha`ban 722 AH which shows that Hadrat Khawajah Nizamuddin Auliya’ (رحمۃ اللہ علیہ) was a spiritual healer, a guide of the spiritual way, and a salik of the path of haqiqat and was on a high pedestal in those faculties. His history speaks of the depth of his knowledge and thought. According to him a Sufi must be a scholar. He stressed upon the significance of the reason and planning. He gave the lesson of love and affection towards the people at large. He taught sacrifice for and service to the people. He was moderate in the matter of the world and seclusion. There was special arrangement to abide by the Shari `ah and following the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah (صلی اللہ علیہ وآلہ وسلم). He declared the company of the Sheikh necessary to get spiritual benefit. According to him six things were essential for a salik, namely:

Medieval coastal Syrian vegetation patterns in the principality of Antioch

The coastal area of Jableh, in the vicinity of the Saladin and Al-Marquab castles, is a fertile alluvial plain located on the northwestern part of Syria, in what was once the crusader Principality of Antioch. In order to detail the coastal environment during the crusader period in the Middle East, palynological analyses have been conducted on the underlying coastal-alluvial deposits. The recovered sediments represent a continuous record of the environmental history of the area spanning a c. AD 850—1850 cal. yr period, from the Muslim Era up to and including the late Ottoman times. During the local crusader period (AD 1100—1270), the area was dominated by an arborescent mattoral mixed with a xerophytic shrub-steppe. The alluvial plain was slightly waterlogged and colonized by a wetland meadow with an open vegetation of steppe-like character on bare surfaces and fresh arable soils. The riparian and open deciduous riverine forests were weakly developed. Signs of agricultural activities are mainly recorded for the High Medieval period (AD 1000—1300), with an increase of vineyards in the coastal area. Since c. AD 1250 cal. yr until the end of the crusader period, agricultural activities never reached the same intensity as during the Mameluke Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire.

Disorientations: Spanish Colonialism in Africa and the Performance of Identity (review)

Reviewed by: Disorientations: Spanish Colonialism in Africa and the Performance of Identity Beatriz Huarte Macione Martin-Márquez, Susan. Disorientations: Spanish Colonialism in Africa and the Performance of Identity. New Haven: Yale UP, 2008. Pp. 445. ISBN 978-0-300-12520-7. Martin-Márquez examines the development of the Spanish national identity in light of Spain's ties with its Islamic and African heritages and explores the ambivalence demonstrated by Spaniards in regard to such relationships. Her investigation incorporates a wide range of sources, including literature, paintings, media articles, and films. The text contains an introduction, six chapters, and an afterword, followed by notes, works cited, and an index. In "Introduction: Theorizing the Performance of Spanish Identity," the author underscores the pivotal importance that the recovery of the Andalusian tradition of Spain and Spain's colonization of the African continent in Morocco, the West Sahara, and Equatorial Guinea has [End Page 150] played in the conception of a Spanish national identity. Martin-Márquez supplies an overview of subsequent chapters by explaining her selection of texts, historical figures, films, writers, and artists. Chapter 1, "Power Plays: Reformulations of Spanish Identity and the Colonization of Africa," details the historical background of Martin-Márquez's study. The discussion of the development of Spain as a nation begins with the year 1492. The author continues with the period she designates as a "second-wave of nation building" during which Spaniards look into their history to find their identity, in particular into the culture of Al-Andalus, represented by the palace of the Alhambra in Granada. She explains the debate between scholars concerning the significance of the Muslim era in Spain. The author explores the related issues of race, racial purity, and identity, including the perspectives of Galicians, Basques, and Catalans on such topics. The following chapter, "The 'Savage' Art of Mimicry in Spain's Colonization of Sub-Saharan Africa," explores efforts by anthropologists, scientists, and scholars during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to define the racial makeup of Spain and the effects of colonization on such a composition. In this context, Martin-Márquez discusses the work of the Basque scientist Manuel Iradier titled, África: viajes y trabajos de la Asociación Eúskara La Exploradora. Iradier describes his exploration of Equatorial Guinea as he establishes associations between the geography, language, and people of Africa and the Basques. Years later, Sabino Arana, the founder of the Basque Nationalistic Party, hypothesizes also in El baskuence en toda el África on such Basque and African connections. However, Arana emphasizes the superiority and blood purity of the Basques above all other Spaniards. Martin-Márquez explains Arana's contradiction on blood purity as follows: "Yet within Basque nationalist thought, racial superiority is also often linked to racial primacy—and how better to prove that the Basques constitute one of the oldest and most venerable races on earth, than to claim that Africa itself is actually Basque?" (83). The next two chapters, titled "Staging the Odalisque's Conquest in the Spanish-Moroccan War" and "The Masculine Role in the Spanish-Moroccan Theater of War," center on representations of the conflict of the Spanish-Moroccan War through literature and artistic works of Spaniards such as Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, Benito Pérez Galdós, and the painter María Fortuny. The ambivalence of the imperialistic aspirations of Spain in Africa is reflected in Alarcon's Diario de un testigo de la guerra en África, Aita Tettauen by Benito Pérez Galdós and Batalla de Tetuán by María Fortuny. This section also illustrates the crisis in feminine and masculine gender roles exploring race, gender, and sexuality. The author analyzes several films produced under Franco's regime in "Unmasking Family Values in Franco's African Colonies." The films include Locura de amor, Romancero marroquí, La canción de Aixa, and La llamada de África. Through an in-depth study of such movies, Martin-Márquez evaluates Spanish racial identity, religion, sexuality, and sexual relations between African natives and colonists, including the purity of Spanish women in their relations with Africans. The author continues with an analysis of two films set in Spanish Guinea, underscoring...

Upper Social Strata Women in Nursing in Turkey

The development of nursing education in Turkey was influenced by the twentieth-century political changes that encouraged the involvement of women in social life in Turkey. This study examines this development, beginning in the early twentieth century, including the role of relations between nurses in Turkey and the United States in advancing nursing education. The work is based on Ottoman archival sources, publications of the Ottoman-Turkish Red Crescent, and research on the history of nursing education in Turkey. The names of the institutions mentioned in documents and published works are in English, with the original Turkish names in parentheses. The dates in the Ottoman calendar (reckoned from the Hegira, Muslim era) and Roman calendar (adapted from the Gregorian calendar) that were used by Ottoman officials in their correspondence have been converted to the Western Christian calendar. English translations of Turkish references are in parentheses.

The Opponents of the Writing of Tradition in Early Islam

? 1 In the sixth century of the Muslim era the Hanbalite scholar Abui 'l-Farag ibn al-Gawzl (d. 597) wrote a book to encourage his lazy contemporaries to greater efforts in the memorisation of Tradition.' God, he argued, had singled out the Muslims to memorise Koran and Tradition, whereas those who had been before them had been dependent on written sources and were incapable of memorisation. The Jews, for example, had conferred on Ezra2 the title son of God merely because he knew the Torah by heart; among Muslims, by contrast, a seven-year-old child could recite the Koran from memory. The same contrast obtained in the field of Tradition. Nobody among the nations transmits the words and deeds of their Prophet in a reliable fashion apart from us; for among us is transmitted from one generation to another, and the reliability of [each] transmitter is examined until the tradition has been traced back to the Prophet. Other nations have their traditions from written sources of which the writers and transmitters are unknown.3 ? 2 Ibn al-Oawzi's exhortation suggests two basic points about the Tradition of Islam. The first concerns the significance of its oral character. For Ibn al-(awzi, as for the Muslim traditionists in general, this oral character was more than an occasion for the display of