Mushroom Harvesting Research Articles

Robotic Button Mushroom Harvesting Systems: A Review of Design, Mechanism, and Future Directions

The global demand for button mushrooms has surged in recent years, driven by their health benefits, creating a significant challenge for the mushroom industry in meeting this increasing demand. The increasing reliance on human labor, which is becoming unsustainable due to labor shortages and rising wage costs, highlights the urgent need for automated harvesting solutions. This review examines the integration of automated systems in button mushroom harvesting, delving into the key components such as robots, mechanisms, machine elements, programming, and algorithms. It offers a thorough analysis of the performance, design, operational mechanisms, and advantages and limitations of robotic systems, comparing the different methods employed in automated harvesting. This paper compares the performance of all the mushroom harvesters, including the commercially available ones with manual harvesting, and identifies their potential and limitations. The commercial harvesters are shown to pick 2000 mushrooms per hour on average, which is similar to how much a skilled worker picks at the same time. However, commercial automation harvesting has a relatively low success rate, high initial cost, high operating cost, and energy consumption, identifying areas for future research and challenges. This paper serves as a valuable resource for researchers and industry professionals striving to advance automated harvesting technology and improve its efficiency in meeting the rising demand for button mushrooms.

Large wildfires alter the potential capacity of fire-prone Mediterranean pine forests to provide wild edible mushrooms over the long term

Projected trends of intensified wildfires due to climate warming and fuel-load accumulation are expected to significantly alter fungal diversity, but we know little about how these changes will impact ecosystem services. We aimed to analyze how large wildfires alter the capacity of fire-prone Mediterranean ecosystems dominated by Pinus pinaster Ait. to deliver the provisioning ecosystem service of mushroom production throughout the post-fire succession. We assessed this at early (<10 years), medium (10-20 years), and late (>20 years) stages after fire, compared to an unburned forest. Our results evidenced that large wildfires significantly reduced the capacity of these forests to provide mushroom harvesting opportunities. This adverse effect was most pronounced in the first few years after wildfire but persisted even after 20 years of post-fire succession. The total fungal species richness, abundance, diversity, and productivity at the post-fire successional stages remained lower than in the unburned forest, failing to reach their pre-fire levels even after two decades. However, the presence of commercially valuable edible fungal species, along with their species richness and productivity, began to recover in the medium and late stages after fire. In the immediate aftermath of the fire, saprotrophic fungal species dominated, while mycorrhizal species became more prevalent during the medium and late stages of secondary succession. Additionally, the abundance and productivity of mycorrhizal species in the late succession stage approached those found in the unburned forest. Soil pH and biochemical variables (microbial biomass C and β-glucosidase enzymatic activity) were key drivers of changes in species composition along the successional stages. This knowledge is essential to guide management solutions aimed at reducing ecosystem service loss and increasing resilience to the new scenario of extreme large wildfire events at shorter fire-free intervals, especially in southern Europe.

Imitation Learning from a Single Demonstration Leveraging Vector Quantization for Robotic Harvesting

The ability of robots to tackle complex non-repetitive tasks will be key in bringing a new level of automation in agricultural applications still involving labor-intensive, menial, and physically demanding activities due to high cognitive requirements. Harvesting is one such example as it requires a combination of motions which can generally be broken down into a visual servoing and a manipulation phase, with the latter often being straightforward to pre-program. In this work, we focus on the task of fresh mushroom harvesting which is still conducted manually by human pickers due to its high complexity. A key challenge is to enable harvesting with low-cost hardware and mechanical systems, such as soft grippers which present additional challenges compared to their rigid counterparts. We devise an Imitation Learning model pipeline utilizing Vector Quantization to learn quantized embeddings directly from visual inputs. We test this approach in a realistic environment designed based on recordings of human experts harvesting real mushrooms. Our models can control a cartesian robot with a soft, pneumatically actuated gripper to successfully replicate the mushroom outrooting sequence. We achieve 100% success in picking mushrooms among distractors with less than 20 min of data collection comprising a single expert demonstration and auxiliary, non-expert, trajectories. The entire model pipeline requires less than 40 min of training on a single A4000 GPU and approx. 20 ms for inference on a standard laptop GPU.

Evaluation of Sample Size Influence on Chemical Characterization and In Vitro Antioxidant Properties of Flours Obtained from Mushroom Stems Coproducts.

The mushroom industry generates large amounts of stem co-product. This is generated after mushroom harvest; stems are attached to the growth substratum, and their only use has traditionally been as compost. In this study, we investigated extensively for the first time this co-product and the influence of sample size (L->0.510 mm; LI-0.510-0.315 mm; SI-0.315-0.180 mm; S-<0.180 mm) on the characterization and antioxidant activity of flours obtained from stem co-products of Agaricus bisporus (ABSF) and Pleurotus ostreatus (POSF). ABSF was rich in protein (14 g/100 g), calcium (428.23-700.77 mg/100 g), and sorbitol (22.57-26.60 g/100 g), while POSF was rich in β-glucans (36.62-40.34 g/100 g) and linoleic acid (20.57-39.86 g/100 g of lipid). Both species were flush in amino acids and had an umami flavour. ABSF showed more elevated values for emulsifying activity than POSF. The S sizes were highlighted for their yield, hydration properties, and oil holding capacity. Furthermore, ABSF-S exhibited heightened antioxidant capacity in vitro, in consonance with the total phenolic compounds observed (0.91 mg/g). However, the antioxidant assays in POSF presented a positive correlation with β-glucan content. Our study suggests that these co-products could have several food-related applications, such as potential for use as an emulsifier, sweetener, or fortifier in the development of functional food, owing to their rich concentrations of fibre, protein, sorbitol, and β-glucans. Nevertheless, it is necessary to understand the interactions of the flours with the potential food matrix prior to proceeding further with food-related applications.

Survey of Mushroom Harvesting Agricultural Robots and Systems Design

Survey of Mushroom Harvesting Agricultural Robots and Systems Design

Investigating musculoskeletal risks in manual mushroom harvesting: An ergonomic field study in canadian farms

Canada's annual production of 132,000 metric tonnes of mushrooms relies on manual harvesting, posing risks of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs). This study employs ergonomic evaluation techniques, including Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) and Cumulative Trauma Disorder (CTD) index, along with a discomfort assessment questionnaire, to analyze workers' postural loads and self-reported discomfort. Results indicate that immediate alterations are needed in 85% of picking postures to reduce WMSD risks (RULA score: 6–7). The overall process shows a CTD index of 1.16, indicating potential repetitive strain injuries. Pickers report discomfort, particularly in the hand and shoulder. The study underscores the need for alternatives like redesigned growing beds to enhance worker safety in mushroom harvesting.

Postharvest evaluation, characteristics of yellow oyster mushroom (Pleurotus citrinopileatus): Physicochemical properties and antioxidant activity [Evaluasi pascapanen, karakteristik jamur tiram kuning (Pleurotus citrinopileatus): sifat fisikokimia dan aktifitas antioksidan

The level of physiological maturity of the plant, productivity at harvest, and content in the material are all determined by harvest age, which is a component that is strongly tied to the phase of plant growth. Oyster mushrooms will undergo biochemical changes as they mature, but they will also change physically when they are harvested, especially in terms of color, texture, size, form, and the sections that may be eaten. This study aims to discover the optimal harvest age for yellow oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus citrinopileatus) based on their physical, chemical, and antioxidant activity. It also examines the impact of harvest age on the physical, chemical, and antioxidant activity of yellow oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus citrinopileatus). The design of this investigation was entirely random. This study used two harvest periods of yellow oyster mushrooms with harvest ages of 2, 3, 4, and 5 days after the appearance of pinheads as the treatment. Three times each experimental unit is repeated. The nursery, incubation, upkeep, and harvest of yellow oyster mushrooms comprised the study. The findings demonstrated that wet weight, rendemen, total phenol, and antioxidant activity of yellow oyster mushrooms were significantly influenced by harvest age. It is advised to harvest the yellow oyster mushroom on the third day after the appearance of pinheads.

Developing an Identification System for Different Types of Edible Mushrooms in Sri Lanka using Machine Learning and Image Processing

This study aims to develop an image processing-based approach to identify edible mushroom species from other mushrooms using CNN and identify edible mushrooms based on ANN and identification growth stage of edible mushrooms using CNN image processing techniques. The identification of mushrooms can be challenging, especially for non-experts, due to the morphological similarities between edible and poisonous species. Also there have similarities between edible mushroom species. Therefore, there is a need for an accurate and efficient method to differentiate between edible and non-edible mushrooms and edible mushroom species. In this study, we propose the use of image processing techniques, such as feature extraction, segmentation, and classification, to analyze images of mushrooms and distinguish between edible mushroom species. We will collect images of different mushroom species found in Sri Lanka and use them to train and test our image processing algorithm. we will collect images of edible mushrooms are divide in to growth stage. Our approach has the potential to improve the safety and accessibility of wild mushroom harvesting, promote the consumption of nutritious edible mushrooms, and prevent accidental ingestion of poisonous mushrooms and improve identify edible mushroom species and find the growth stage of edible mushrooms.

Active recreational and silvicultural co-use of forested areas: an innovative forest management study

Abstract Issue Forests are crucial in the sustainability transition to a biobased modern society. However, forests may also be recreational sites, and positively affect human health and well-being. Modern silvicultural harvesting practices alters the landscape overnight, and hence may affect the recreational and public health promoting use of it. Description of the problem Municipalities, as owners of urban forest areas, may actively support inhabitants’ recreational use of near-by forested areas by 1) allocate resources to local voluntary organizations who facilitate for recreational users and 2) actively facilitate for continuous recreational use while practicing modern silviculture. In 2020-2022, an innovative integrative forest management approach was tested in a municipality in mid-Norway. This study explores how the local forests are used for recreational purposes, and how potential conflicts in land use can be mitigated or prevented. Results The forest areas are mostly used for health-promoting activities like exercise, walking, general recreation, and seasonal harvesting of wild berries and mushrooms. Half of the users get to the forest by foot or bicycle. Easy access, closeness to home, free parking arrangements and access to maps of the areas is important to users. Most users were well-informed about local forest-based businesses and carbon sequestration in wood and held that forests should be harvested and regenerated. They showed a high tolerance for forestry if the footpaths were cleared immediately. However, three out of four users want to be informed before harvesting. A small share of users wants educational posters about forest ecosystems. Lessons A pre-existing low conflict level between modern forestry and recreational forest use may be maintained by quite simple and modest means. In this municipality information posters were placed by the footpaths and an arena for discussions, information and co-creation of recreational facilitation was established in 2022. Key messages • Near-urban forests are frequently used for exercise and recreational activities, especially if easily accessible. • Harmonious co-use of forest areas, even in times of timber harvesting, is supported by rapidly recovering the footpaths and by notifying inhabitants in advance.

Nutritional Evaluation of Spent Mushroom Substrate of Fibrous Agricultural Residues at Different Phases of Mushroom Harvest

Nutritional Evaluation of Spent Mushroom Substrate of Fibrous Agricultural Residues at Different Phases of Mushroom Harvest

Use of oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) for increased circularity and valorization of rapeseed residues

In Europe, rapeseed is a common oilseed crop, resulting in the production of 20 million tons of rapeseed press cake yearly. This press cake can be further upcycled and a protein fraction can be extracted for food purposes, leaving de-proteinized fiber-rich residues. This study examined the use of these residues in the production of oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) and of the spent substrate as feed, since mushroom cultivation may improve the feed properties of substrate. In terms of mushroom production, the addition of rapeseed press residues was beneficial, giving significantly higher biological efficiency (BE = 93.1 ± 11.0%) compared with the control, sugar beet pulp substrate (70.0 ± 6.6%). This increase in productivity can most likely be explained by higher energy content in the substrate supplemented with lipid-rich rapeseed residues. Despite differences in BE between the substrates, high similarity was observed in lipid composition of the fruiting bodies (lipid profile dominated by linoleic acid (18:2), palmitic acid (16:0), and oleic acid (18:1)), and in protein and moisture content. After mushroom harvest, approximately 70% of the initial dry weight of both substrates remained as a possible feed source. Both substrates had significantly lower levels of carbohydrates and unchanged neutral detergent fiber content after mushroom harvest, and both gave lower in vitro digestibility, total gas production, and methane production. However, protein concentration differed between the substrates, with the highest concentration (15.8% of dry weight) found in spent substrate containing rapeseed press residues. The result of the present study suggests that the de-proteinized rapeseed press residue is a resource well-suited for use in the production of mushrooms and feed.

Suitability of maize crop residue fermented by Pleurotus ostreatus as feed for edible crickets: growth performance, micronutrient content, and iron bioavailability.

Small-scale farming of edible insects could help combat public health challenges such as protein energy malnutrition and anemia, but reliable low-cost feeds for insects are needed. In resource-limited contexts, where grains such as maize are prohibitively costly for use as insect feed, the feasibility of insect farming may depend on finding alternatives. Here, we explore the potential to modify plentiful maize crop residue with edible mushroom mycelium to generate a low-cost feed adjunct for the farmed two-spotted cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus. Mushroom farming, like insect agriculture, is versatile; it can yield nutritious food while increasing system circularity by utilizing lignocellulosic residues from row crops as inputs. Pleurotus ostreatus, is an edible basidiomycete capable of being cultivated on corn stover (Zea mays). Mushroom harvest results in abundant "spent" substrate, which we investigated as a candidate feed ingredient. We created six cricket feeds containing fermented Pleurotus substrate plus an unfermented control, measuring cricket mass, mortality, and maturation weekly to evaluate cricket growth performance impacts of both fungal fermentation duration and mushroom formation. Pasteurized corn stover was inoculated with P. ostreatus mycelium and fermented for 0, 2, 3, 4, or 8 weeks. Some 4 and 8-week substrates were induced to produce mushrooms through manipulations of temperature, humidity, and light conditions. Dried fermented stover (40%) was added to a 1:1 corn/soy grain mix and fed to crickets ad libitum for 44 days. The unfermented control group showed higher survivorship compared to several fermented diets. Control group mass yield was higher for 2 out of 6 fermented diets. Little variation in cricket iron content was observed via ICP-spectrometry across feeds, averaging 2.46 mg/100 g. To determine bioavailability, we conducted in vitro Caco-2 human colon epithelial cell absorption assays, showing that iron in crickets fed fruiting-induced substrates was more bioavailable than in unfruited groups. Despite more bioavailable iron in crickets reared on post-fruiting substrates, we conclude that Pleurotus-fermented stover is an unsuitable feed ingredient for G. bimaculatus due to high mortality, variability in growth responses within treatments, and low mass yield.

Development of an Automatic Wood Ear Mushroom Harvesting System Based on the Collaboration of Robotics, VR, and AI Technologies

Development of an Automatic Wood Ear Mushroom Harvesting System Based on the Collaboration of Robotics, VR, and AI Technologies

Inovasi Budidaya Jamur Tiram Sebagai Penghasilan Tambahan Di Masa Pandemi

During the Covid-19 pandemic, residents of Talun Village in Rangkasbitung saw the benefits of oyster mushroom farming as an alternative source of income. The Community Service Team is primarily concerned with mapping the problem and developing a solution plan to raise the quantity, quality, and economic worth of oyster mushroom production. To attain the aims, participatory learning, field practice, monitoring, and evaluation are used. To ensure the sustainability of the cultivation, a total of 20 youth members of the youth organization were participating. The following innovation outcomes were achieved: 1) improving mushroom quality by increasing baglog nutrition with the addition of corn groats; 2) the introduction and use of mixing machines for mixing materials; 3) the introduction and use of autoclaves and boiler machines; 4) the use of manual log molds and folding plastic; and 5) mushroom harvesting technique innovation

Sustainable Management of Anaerobic Digestate: From Biogas Plant to Full-Scale Cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus

In the last decades, the number of studies about the valorization of agricultural by-products has strongly increased due to the growing focus on the circular economy. In this context, mushroom cultivation is raising attention for its nutritional properties and adaptability to different growing conditions. The goal of this project is, therefore, to create a link between two production chains, valorizing the solid anaerobic digestate fraction from the biogas plant as a potential substrate for Pleurotus ostreatus full-scale cultivation. A preliminary in vitro trial shows that the mycelia can colonize at the same rate in both the conventional substrate, which was wheat straw added with sunflower cake and the experimental ones supplemented with corn digestate. The most important and innovative part of the work was full-scale cultivation. Quantitative analyses demonstrate that P. ostreatus is capable of growing on the conventional substrate as well as on the substrate containing 15% of digestate without reducing the mushroom harvest. Even better, digestate seems to stimulate a precocious and more homogeneous production. Chemical and spectroscopic analyses on the fruiting bodies confirm the results; in fact, mushrooms show a comparable structural composition, highlighted with FTIR and SERS spectroscopic evaluations. Moreover, the nutrient content did not change due to the addition of digestate. These promising results demonstrate that anaerobic digestate can become a resource for P. ostreatus cultivation without production losses and maintaining the same qualitative characteristics.

Valorization of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) along with rice straw as feedstock for efficient bio gasification

Wastes generated after mushroom harvesting are known as spent mushroom substrate (SMS) which causes contamination of the environment. Anaerobic digestion is an economical and viable technology used for the management of several types of agricultural wastes, thus generating syngas that has many thermal applications. The current manuscript reports the potential of SMS for anaerobic digestion in five different combinations with rice straw, cattle dung, and bio-digested slurry. The kinetics of the biogasification process occurring in digesters was analyzed by modified Gompertz model. Results showed that maximum biogas (3,12,664 ml) was produced in digester C containing SMS, rice straw, cattle dung, and bio-digested slurry in the ratio of 8:2:1:1 as compared to control (48,968 ml) consisting of only SMS and water in the ratio of 8:2. Evaluation of feedstock for proximate and chemical composition recorded a notable reduction in total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin content as compared to control. On the other hand, ash content showed a significant increase after anaerobic digestion. Modified Gompertz equation revealed that maximum biogas production potential (P) of 6,150.50 mLg-1 VS with a biogas production rate (Rm) of 134 mLg-1d -1 and lag phase () of 12.80 days was observed in digester C as compared to the control digester A (P= 12.24 mLg-1 VS; Rm = 8.56 mLg-1d -1; =8.80 days). The study demonstrated that the codigesting SMS with rice straw can be successfully implicated for producing biogas as an energy source rather making dumped at the village site for causing pollution.

Robotic Motion Planning in Dynamic Environments and its Applications

The fundamental problem of robot motion planning in a dynamic environment (RMPDE) is to find an optimal collision-free path from the start to the goal in a dynamic environment. Our literature survey of over 100 papers from the last four decades reveals that there are more than 30 models of RMPDE, and there is no benchmarking criterion to select one that is the best in a given situation. In this context, generating a regression-based model with 10 attributes is the first and foremost contribution of our research. Given a highly human-interactive environment like a cafeteria or a bus stand, the gross hidden Markov model has special importance for modeling a robot path. A variant of the growing hidden Markov model for a serving robot in a cafeteria is the second contribution of this paper. We simulated the behavior of GHMM in a cafeteria with static and dynamic obstacles (static obstacles were both convex and concave) and with three different arrangements of the tables and obstacles. Robots have been employed in mushroom harvesting. A novel proposition discussed in this paper is probabilistic road map planning for a robot that finds an optimum path for reaching the ripened mushrooms in a randomly planted mushroom farm and a dexterous hand to pluck the selected mushrooms by employing inverse kinematics. Further, two biologically inspired meta-heuristic algorithms, ant colony optimization, and firefly has been studied for their application to latex collection. The simulation results with this environment show that the firefly algorithm outperforms ant colony optimization in the general case. Finally, we have proposed a few pointers for future research in this domain. The compilation and comparison of various approaches to robot motion planning in highly dynamic environments, and the simulation of a few models for some typical scenarios, have been the contributions of this paper.

Biochemical and Molecular Profiling of Wild Edible Mushrooms from Huila, Angola.

The harvesting, processing, and sale of wild edible mushrooms (WEM) is a relevant economic activity in Angola and a good example of the use of non-wood forest products for food. Although there is deep traditional knowledge about the general properties of WEMs, a huge gap remains in detailed scientific knowledge. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the socio-economic importance of the species sold at local markets in Huila, Angola, from their molecular identification to the assessment of their nutritional, chemical, and bioactive profiles. From the eight WEM morphotypes studied, five were identified based on phenotypical and molecular approaches (four Russula spp., and Amanita loosei). The studied mushrooms proved to be a rich source of carbohydrates, proteins, and ashes, also presenting low amounts of fat. Chemical analyses further revealed mannitol as the main free sugar in all samples, and organic acids, namely, oxalic, quinic, malic, citric, and fumaric acids in low amounts. Additionally, the α-tocopherol isoform and monounsaturated fatty acids were predominant. Regarding phenolic acids, protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric, and cinnamic acids were detected in all mushroom hydroethanolic extracts, being responsible for their antioxidant, antibacterial, and antifungal activities. Our investigation contributes to the identification and knowledge of WEMs as important complementary food sources in Angola, some of which were reported for the first time, promoting their utilization as a basis of nutritional and functional ingredients, as being able to be part of a balanced diet and to be used in new bio-based formulations.

Pemberdayaan Ibu-Ibu PKK Kelurahan Pongangan Kecamatan Gunungpati melalui Pelatihan Budidaya Jamur Tiram

The COVID-19 pandemic has been going on for two years and has disrupted the community's economy. This is because some people don't have jobs and income anymore. This condition also impacts the community in the Pongangan Gunungpati sub-district, Semarang. Some people lose their jobs due to layoffs at their companies. This condition does not make the community lose hope, especially mothers who are members of the Family Welfare Programme. They try to create jobs and businesses that can be pursued with existing capabilities and conditions. Oyster mushroom cultivation training activities in community service activities were chosen as an alternative solution; This is not because oyster mushroom cultivation does not require high capital; this can be done at home and independently. This community service is carried out through training and mentoring activities for oyster mushroom cultivation, with a material selection of locations and nurseries for the care and harvest of oyster mushrooms. The training and assistance are expected to provide knowledge and skills as essential capital in the oyster mushroom cultivation business that will be carried out.

Production of Oyster Mushroom Using Sterilized and Carbonized Fruiting Bags: A Comparative Study

The study was conducted for production of oyster mushrooms using sterilized and carbonized fruiting bags. Using these agro-wastes as substrates in different mixture proportions, the productivity of oyster mushrooms was investigated in terms of the number of yields, mass, size, and height. An experimental research design was used to test the hypothesis of the significant difference in the yields and growth of oyster mushrooms between SPH-LS and CPH-LS. The percentage, weighted mean, ANOVA TEST, and two-tailed test were used to interpret the data gathered based on a comparative study of mushroom productivity in terms of the earlier mentioned variables. Analysis of data revealed that SPH-LS (25%?75%) is not significantly different (p > 0.05) from CPH-LS (25% ? 75%) as both showed almost the same average height produce. However, compared with the other two CPH-LSs is more recommended. Carbon could be mixed with another substrate rich in cellulose to grow mushrooms. The results showed that increasing the percentage of lye straw in the CPH and the SPH increases the yields, mass, and size of oyster mushrooms. This means that the said mixture combination is effective for mushroom production; however, no significant effect in the height of the mushroom in different mixture proportions with (P=0.015) was recorded. The results showed that increasing the percentage of lye straw in the carbonized palay husks and the sterilized palay husks increases the yields, mass, size and height of oyster mushrooms. Substrates with sterilized palay husks 25% with lye straw 75% were the most suitable substrate formulas for the cultivation of oyster mushrooms. This substrate gave the highest value in the number of yields, mass, size, and height with a smooth, white, and wide in diameter fan shape cap, overlapping cluster, with slightly course gills running from the cap down below the elongated stem. Notably, the substrate with 100% carbonized palay husks gave no harvest of oyster mushrooms in the entire 30-day period of study). It was also found that the increasing ratio of lye straw in the substrate closely correlates with the number of yields, mass, size, height, texture, and appearance. There is a significant difference between the sterilized palay husk and carbonized palay husk as the fruiting oyster mushroom bag. It was revealed that the sterilized palay husk with lye straw produced a more significant amount of oyster mushroom in yield (piece), mass (gram), and size (cm) compared with carbonized palay husk but there is no significance in terms of height. Since that the production of oyster mushrooms using carbonized palay husk with lye straw was increased in terms of height. Therefore, the hypothesis of this study was partially accepted. It is recommended to utilize of the efficiency of agro-wastes as the substrate in cultivating oyster mushroom. More specifically the 25 % sterilized palay husk with 75 %lye straw. It can harvest more amount oyster mushroom in terms of yields, mass, and size. However, it is more recommended to used 25% carbonized palay husk with 75 % lye straw in terms of height of oyster mushroom.