Muscoid Flies Research Articles

Plant-pollinator network change across a century in the subarctic.

Animal-mediated pollination is a vital ecosystem service to crops and wild plants, and long-term stability of plant-pollinator interactions is therefore crucial for maintaining plant biodiversity and food security. However, it is unknown how the composition of pollinators and the structure of pollinator interactions have changed across longer time spans relevant to examining responses to human activities such as climate change. We resampled an historical dataset of plant-pollinator interactions across several orders of pollinating insects in a subarctic location in Finland that has already experienced substantial climate warming but little land use change. Our results reveal a dramatic turnover in pollinator species and rewiring of plant-pollinator interactions, with only 7% of the interactions shared across time points. The relative abundance of moth and hoverfly pollinators declined between time points, whereas muscoid flies, a group for which little is known regarding conservation status and responses to climate, became more common. Specialist pollinators disproportionately declined, leading to a decrease in network-level specialization, which could have harmful consequences for pollination services. Our results exemplify the changes in plant-pollinator networks that might be expected in other regions as climate change progresses.

Oral Toxicity of Pseudomonas protegens against Muscoid Flies.

The bioinsecticidal action of Pseudomonas protegens has so far been reported against some target insects, and the mode of action remains unclear. In this study, the pathogenicity potential of a recently isolated strain of this bacterial species against fly larvae of medical and veterinary interest was determined. Preliminary experiments were conducted to determine the biocidal action by ingestion against Musca domestica and Lucilia caesar larvae, which highlighted a concentration-dependent effect, with LC50 values of 3.6 and 2.5 × 108 CFU/mL, respectively. Bacterial septicaemia was observed in the body of insects assuming bacterial cells by ingestion. Such rapid bacterial reproduction in the hemolymph supports a toxin-mediated mechanism of action involving the intestinal barrier overcoming. In order to gain more information on the interaction with the host, the relative time-course expression of selected P. protegens genes associated with virulence and pathogenicity, was determined by qPCR at the gut level during the first infection stage. Among target genes, chitinase D was the most expressed, followed by pesticin and the fluorescent insecticidal toxin fitD. According to our observations and to the diversity of metabolites P. protegens produces, the pathogenic interaction this bacterium can establish with different targets appears to be complex and multifactorial.

Improved Sentinel Method for Surveillance and Collection of Filth Fly Parasitoids.

Parasitoids are important natural enemies of house flies and other muscoid flies. The two most commonly used methods for collecting fly parasitoids from the field have distinct advantages and disadvantages. Collections of wild puparia depend on the ability to find puparia in sufficient numbers and are prone to localized distortions in relative species abundance because of the overrepresentation of samples from hot spots of fly larval activity. Placement and retrieval of sentinel puparia is convenient and allows consistent sampling over time but is strongly biased in favor of Muscidifurax spp. over Spalangia spp. An improved sentinel method is described that combines some of the advantages of these two methods. Fly medium containing larvae is placed in containers, topped with a screen mesh bag of puparia, and placed in vertebrate-proof wire cages. Cages are placed at sites of actual or potential fly breeding and retrieved 3-7 d later. The modified method collected species profiles that more closely resembled those of collections of wild puparia than those from sentinel pupal bags. A method is also described for isolating puparia individually in 96-well tissue culture plates for parasitoid emergence. Use of the plate method provided a substantial saving of time and labor over the use of individual gelatin capsules for pupal isolation. Puparia from the collections that were housed individually in the wells of tissue culture plates had a higher proportion of emerged Spalangia species than puparia that were held in groups.

Comparative study of the insect community visiting flowers of invasive goldenrods (Solidago canadensis and S. gigantea)

Giant and Canadian goldenrods (Solidago gigantea and S. canadensis, respectively) are two closely related insect-pollinated plants of the family Asteraceae, native to North America and invasive in the Palearctic region. Here we study the structure of the flower-visitor community associated with these species in seven sites from three geographic locations in Central Russia throughout two flowering seasons, using qualitative (visitor set) and quantitative (visitation rate and relative frequency of different functional groups of flower-visiting insects) approaches. These species do not have a specific visitor set and are visited by a wide range of insects. Most differences in pollinator sets are in rare occasional visitors rather than specific ones preferring one of the two plant species. Hoverflies, honey bees, muscoid flies, and wasps are the most frequent visitors of goldenrods, though this generalization can be done only after obtaining large samples: brief observations at one site can bring about misleading results due to high spatial and temporal variation. Though intra-species spatial and temporal variation exceeds inter-species variation, all else equal, insect visitation rate to S. gigantea is higher. This is especially true of pronounced anthophilous insects. These results, together with the shown flower constancy of flower visitors, suggest that insects can distinguish between these two species.

It Is Not All About Being Sweet: Differences in Floral Traits and Insect Visitation among Hybrid Carrot Cultivars.

Cytoplasmically male-sterile (CMS) carrot cultivars suffer from low pollination rates. In this study, insect visitation varied more than eightfold between 17 CMS carrot cultivars in a field-based cultivar evaluation trial. The visitation rates of honey bees, nectar scarabs, muscoid flies, and wasps each significantly differed among these cultivars. No significant difference in visitation rates was observed among cultivars of different CMS type (brown-anther or petaloid) or flower colour, but cultivars of Berlicumer root type had significantly higher insect visitation rates than Nantes. Six cultivars were further compared in regard to selected umbel traits: as umbel diameter increased, so did the visitation of soldier beetles, while that of honey bees decreased. Finally, nectar of these six cultivars was analysed for sugar content, which revealed monosaccharides to be the most common sugars in all. There was high variation in the levels of sugars from individual umbellets but no significant difference in nectar sugar composition among cultivars, suggesting that nectar sugar composition is of minor importance regarding pollinator attraction to hybrid CMS carrot umbels.

Ultrastructure of the Immature Stages of Musca domestica (Diptera: Muscidae: Muscinae).

Musca domestica (Linnaeus, 1758) is a muscoid species that is widespread throughout the world and acts as a mechanical vector of different enteropathogens primarily in underdeveloped countries. The adult and its immature forms are associated with decaying organic matter and can be seen visiting human corpses and animal carcass, and the larvae can also cause an infestation on human and animal wounds, feeding on the tissues. These characteristics make them have a forensic significance and, mainly, a great sanitary importance. This study aimed to analyze and describe morphological aspects of their immature stages of M. domestica, including the eggs, the first-, second-, and third-instar larvae, and the puparium using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The eggs have standard format that all muscoid flies shared. The exochorion has some modified cells that were used for embryonic respiration. The first-instar larvae present two openings on the posterior spiracle as in the second-instar larvae, but with the last one, we can observe the anterior spiracle structure. The third-instar larvae, as in some other Muscidae species, have a posterior spiracular opening with a sinuous form that is located near the edge of the spiracular plate. The puparium morphology is equal to the third instar with a respiratory structure that helps the breathing during the metamorphosis process. This article supports the need for knowledge over the morphological characteristics of the immature forms of the muscoid Diptera (Linnaeus, 1758) at the same time helping with the correct identification of this insect phase.

DNA of Theileria orientalis, T. equi and T. capreoli in stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans)

BackgroundFrom a veterinary-medical point of view, the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, is perhaps the economically most important blood-sucking muscoid fly species (Diptera: Muscidae), owing to its worldwide occurrence, frequently high local abundance, direct harm caused to livestock, pet animals and humans, as well as its vector role. Considering the latter in the context of protozoan parasites, the stable fly is a mechanical vector of trypanosomes and Besnoitia besnoiti. However, its role as a vector of piroplasms appears to be seldom studied, despite old data suggesting mechanical transmission of babesiae by dipteran flies.MethodsIn this study 395 stable flies (and one Haematobia stimulans) were collected at a cattle farm with known history of bovine theileriosis, and at further nine, randomly chosen locations in Hungary. These flies were separated according to sex (30 of them also cut into two parts: the head with mouthparts and the thorax-abdomen), followed by individual DNA extraction, then screening for piroplasms by PCR and sequencing.ResultsIn stable flies, Theileria orientalis and T. capreoli were identified at the cattle farm and T. equi was identified in three other locations. At the cattle farm, significantly more male stable flies carried piroplasm DNA than females. There was no significant difference between the ratio of PCR-positive flies between the stable (void of cattle for at least two hours) and the pen on the pasture with cattle at the time of sampling. Among dissected flies (29 S. calcitrans and 1 H. stimulans), exclusively the thoracic-abdominal parts were PCR-positive, whereas the head and mouthparts remained negative.ConclusionsTheileria DNA is detectable in stable flies, in the case of T. orientalis at least for two hours after blood-feeding, and in the case of T. capreoli also in the absence of infected hosts (i.e. roe deer). Male flies rather than females, and thoracic-abdominal (most likely crop) contents rather than mouthparts may pose a risk of mechanical transmission. These data suggest that it is worth to study further the vector role of stable flies in the epidemiology of theilerioses, in which not the immediate, but rather the delayed type transmission seems possible.

Pollination features and floral volatiles of Gymnospermium scipetarum (Berberidaceae).

The discovery of few isolated populations of Gymnospermium scipetarum (since now considered as an amphi-Adriatic endemic) in the S-Apennines prompted to investigate, also for conservation purposes, some aspects of its reproductive biology. We aim: (1) to determine if insects play an important role in pollination; (2) to describe the pollinator community; (3) to detect floral scent composition. Experiments of insect exclusion were carried out in the field using 24 flowering individuals: one raceme was capped whereas the nearest one was used as control to ascertain differences in seed set. Pollinator community was detected during the blooming phase of two consecutive flowering seasons by visual observation; insect identification was made at the highest possible taxonomic resolution with the help of digital photographs. In order to determine the chemical composition of the volatiles, we used SPME sampling of cultivated plants. Mann-Whitney U test reveals significant differences for treatment in mean seed set with very low values for capped flowers, thus clearly indicating as insects are crucial for successful pollination. During the 42h of observations we detected 326 visitors belonging to only three guilds: 79% were Diptera, 20% Hymenoptera and 1% Coleoptera. We identified overall 36 floral organic compounds with only two compounds common to the other studied Berberidaceae. Ambrox was never identified before in the floral scents of any angiosperm. The presence in the scent of several aldehydes and one ketone (benzophenone) could be related to the detected dominance of muscoid flies as pollinators. Floral morphology and composition of the pollinators community indicate a generalist pollination behaviour probably related to its phenology and habitat preference. The possibility of being pollinated also by muscoid flies can be considered an advantage for the reproductive fitness of the species, since these Diptera are abundant in the mountain pastures surrounding the forest habitat of Gymnospermium.

Laboratory Rearing of Stable Flies and Other Muscoid Diptera.

Stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans, are serious pests of livestock, humans, companion animals and wildlife worldwide. During the last 20+ years, changes in agronomic practices resulted in serious outbreaks of stable flies in several countries. These outbreaks disrupted livestock production and human recreation resulting in public demands for increasing research and management efforts for this pest. A simple and inexpensive procedure for rearing stable flies for laboratory studies is presented. The procedure uses locally available diet components, equipment and supplies. The procedure can be adapted for rearing other muscoid flies including face fly (Musca autumnalis), horn fly (Haematobia irritans), and house fly (Musca domestica). The procedure produces stable fly puparia averaging 12.5 mg and ~35% egg to adult survival. Approximately 3000 flies are produced in each pan.

Frequent Insect Visitors Are Not Always Pollen Carriers in Hybrid Carrot Pollination.

Insect crop visitations do not necessarily translate to carriage or transfer of pollen. To evaluate the potential of the various insects visiting hybrid carrot flowers to facilitate pollen transfer, this study examines insect visitation rates to hybrid carrot seed crops in relation to weather, time of day and season, pollen carrying capacity, inter-row movement, and visitation frequency to male-fertile and male-sterile umbels. The highest pollen loads were carried by nectar scarabs, honey bees, and the hover fly Eristalis tenax (Linnaeus). Honey bees and muscoid flies were observed to forage mostly within the male fertile carrot row while nectar scarabs and E. tenax foraged across rows, carrying equal pollen loads regardless of their distance from the pollen source. All observed insect taxa were more frequently seen visiting male-fertile than male-sterile umbels. In contrast to other visiting insects, honey bees were abundant and frequent visitors and were observed carrying high pollen loads. Consequently, we suggest both optimizing honey bee management and improving the attraction of carrot lines to honey bees to improve pollination rates for hybrid carrot seed crops.

New Rearing Records for Muscoid Leafminers (Diptera: Anthomyiidae, Scathophagidae) in the United States

Distribution and host records are summarized for the three groups that comprise nearly all Nearctic leaf-mining muscoid flies. Chirosia Róndani (Anthomyiidae) includes 18 species in the USA and Canada; as far as is known all are fern feeders. The confirmed leafminers are in the C. flavipennis section, with members of other groups boring in rachises or forming galls. Pegomya s. str. (Anthomyiidae) includes 45 Nearctic species, primarily with hosts in the Caryophyllales (Amaranthaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Polygonaceae), but with others on Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Polemoniaceae, and Solanaceae. Larvae in this subgenus are all believed to be leafminers, although P. atlanis Huckett may be a stem borer. Eleven species of Delininae (Scathophagidae) occur in North America, and the five that have been reared are all leafminers of monocots (Asparagaceae, Melanthiaceae, Orchidaceae). New rearing records and other observations of immature stages are presented for each of these groups.

First record of Anopheles konderi Galvão & Damasceno (Diptera: Culicidae) carrying eggs of Dermatobia hominis (Linnaeus Jr.) (Diptera: Oestridae), from Oriximiná municipality, Pará, Brazil.

The muscoid fly Dermatobia hominis causes cutaneous myiases in mammals. Females of this species use a vector to carry their eggs to the host. This note describes Anopheles konderi acting as phoretic vector for D. hominis. A female A. konderi carrying D. hominis was collected using light traps in Oriximiná, Pará, Brazil. The A. konderi specimen was identified at morphological and molecular levels. Eight eggs of D. hominis were observed on the Anopheles konderi female. Anopheles konderi, only the third Anopheles species recorded as a phoretic vector, may be a potential vector of D. hominis.

First report of the parasitoid Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae (Rondani, 1875) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) parasitizing Synthesiomyia nudiseta (Van der Wulp, 1883) (Diptera: Muscidae).

The hosts of Pteromalidae include Hemiptera, Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Siphonaptera, Hymenoptera, Dermaptera and Homoptera. Pteromalidae attack eggs, larvae, pupae or, rarely, adults. The main contribution of pteromalids towards insect control is in relation to muscoid flies, especially house flies and stable flies (Gauld and Bolton, 1988 ; Hanson and Gauld, 1995 ).The adults of some species of the family Muscidae are vectors, through their bite or in a passive manner, for the pathogens of diseases such as typhoid fever, dysentery, anthrax and African sleeping sickness. House flies overwinter in either the larval or pupal stage under manure piles or in other protected locations. This is the most common insect family found on pig and poultry farms, in horse stables and on ranches (Renaud et al., 2012).Synthesiomyia nudiseta (Van der Wulp, 1883) (Diptera: Muscidae) is a fly with Neotropical geographical distribution. In Brazil, it shows preference for inhabited areas, which makes this fly a potential vector for pathogens (Greenberg, 1971; Aruna et al., 2011; Velasquez et al., 2013).Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae (Rondani, 1875) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) is to be a solitary parasitoid that controls a great number of Diptera in the families Anthomyiidae, Calliphoridae, Muscidae, Sarcophagidae, Tachinidae and Tephritidae. This species presents diversified (cosmopolitan) distribution and it has been found in North America and Africa (Hanson and Gauld, 1995).The objective of this paper was to report a new host for the parasitoid P. vindemmiae, which was collected in the urban region of Goiânia, in the central part of the state of Goias, Brazil.The experiment was conducted in the urban area of Goiânia, in the central part of the state of Goias, Brazil. The flies were collected by using traps, made of dark cans measuring 19 cm in height and 9 cm in diameter, with two openings resembling blinders, located in the lowest third of the can, to allow flies to enter. The top of the can was connected to a nylon funnel that was open at both ends, with the base pointing down. This was wrapped in plastic bags, so that when they were removed, the flies and parasitoids could be collected. The following items were used as baits: human feces, cattle kidneys, cattle liver, chicken and fish which were placed inside the cans, over a layer of earth. Five traps were used and they were hung on trees at a height of one meter above the ground, two meters apart from each other.The insects collected were taken to the laboratory, sacrificed with ethyl ether and kept in 70% alcohol for further identification. To obtain the parasitoids, the contents of the traps were placed in plastic containers with a layer of sand for use as a substrate for transformation of the larvae into pupae. This sand was sifted after being in the fields for 15 days and the pupae were extracted from it and were individually placed in gelatin capsules (number 00) in order to obtain the flies and/or parasitoids.The species were stored in the Biology Laboratory of Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health. The species identification was performed by one of the authors.The total percentage parasitism was calculated by means of the number of pupae parasitized, divided by the total number of pupae collected, and multiplied by 100.Between January and May 2014, two specimens of P. vindemmiae were collected from 26 pupae of S. nudiseta. The percentage parasitism observed was 7.7%. The percentage parasitism can also be correlated with the parasitoid’s search capacity and with the availability of resources.These dipterous insects are potential mechanical vectors for etiological agents such as viruses, bacteria, protozoan cysts and helminth eggs (Greenberg, 1971; Marchiori, 2006). The occurrence, distribution and prevalence of these dipterous insects in metropolitan areas are factors of great public health importance. In rural areas, these insects can cause decreased egg production and animal diseases, and they constitute a nuisance for human populations close to the breeding sites (Couri and Barros, 2010 ; Ekanem et al., 2013; Marchiori, 2007; Marchiori et al., 2014).Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae is considered a parasitoid of pupae of a great number of Diptera, including species of the genera Anastrepha, Calliphora, Ceratitis, Chrysomya, Drosophila, Fannia, Haematobia, Hylemya, Lucilia, Megaselia, Musca, Ophyra, Ornidia, Oxysarcodexia, Palaeosepsis, Paratheresia, Phaenicia, Phormia, Poecilosomella, Peckia,

Synergistic Trap Response of the False Stable Fly and Little House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) to Acetic Acid and Ethanol, Two Principal Sugar Fermentation Volatiles.

In an initial observation, large numbers of muscoid flies (Diptera) were captured as nontarget insects in traps baited with solutions of acetic acid plus ethanol. In subsequent field experiments, numbers of false stable fly Muscina stabulans (Fallén) and little house fly Fannia canicularis (L.) trapped with the combination of acetic acid plus ethanol were significantly higher than those trapped with either chemical alone, or in unbaited traps. Flies were trapped with acetic acid and ethanol that had been formulated in the water of the drowning solution of the trap, or dispensed from polypropylene vials with holes in the vial lids for diffusion of evaporated chemical. Numbers of both species of fly captured were greater with acetic acid and ethanol in glass McPhail traps, compared to four other similar wet trap designs. This combination of chemicals may be useful as an inexpensive and not unpleasant lure for monitoring or removing these two pest fly species.

Floral biology of <i>Adolphia infesta</i> and the reproductive profile of Colletieae (Rhamnaceae)

The reproduction of the shrub Adolphia infesta was studied in a population included in a Mexican agricultural landscape with small, cultivated plots and fragments of natural habitat. Adolphia infesta had reproductive traits consistent with those known for its tribe Colletieae, including small zoophilous flowers exposed to both xenogamous, geitonogamous and visitor-facilitated intrafloral pollination, with selfing being at least partially hindered by self-incompatibility. Visual and olfactory cues, together with easily accessible rewards (nectar and pollen), explain the diversity (68 species of 29 families) of insects attracted to the flowers. However, only a small subset can be considered potential pollinators (honeybee and three muscoid flies). In late floral development, pedicel bending brings the developing fruit to an upright position, which might later optimise explosive seed dispersal. The finding of this trait in A. infesta makes fruit erection a synapomorphy of the Adolphia – Discaria – Kentrothamnus clade of the tribe Colletieae. At the study site, A. infestaplayed a significant role as food source for the local anthophilous insect community, and through its flower visitors, the plant was indirectly connected to 11 other plant species. Knowledge derived from community studies should be applied in conservation initiatives directed at enhancing farmers’ appreciation of extant local biodiversity.

Insect Colonization and Succession on Rabbit Carcasses in Southwestern Mountains of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

This study describes for the first time the necrophagous insects attracted to carcasses of the European rabbit in the mountains of Al-Baha Province of southwestern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Twenty-four rabbit carcasses were exposed in 2010 during spring (March, April, and May), summer (June, July, and August), and autumn (September, October, and November). The calliphorid fly species, Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, Chrysomya marginalis (Wiedemann), Chrysomya chloropyga (Wiedemann), Chrysomya albiceps (Wiedemann), and Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann), the sarcophagid Liosarcophaga babiyari (Lehrer), and muscoid flies Musca domestica (L.) and Musca stabulans Fallén were attracted to the carcasses. Seven species of Coleoptera, the dermestid Dermestes maculatus (De Geer), three species of hister beetles, Saprinus moyses Marseul, Saprinus ruber gemminigeri, and Saprinus chalcites (Illiger), the tenebrionid Himatismus sp., the clerid species, Necrobia ruficollis (F.), and the staphylinid beetle Creophilous maxillosus (L.) were also attracted to the rabbit carcasses. One species of adult pteromalid fly pupal parasitoid Nasonia sp. was also collected. The dominant larvae on all the rabbit carcasses were Ch. albiceps, L. cuprina, and Li. babiyari. Insect activity caused rabbit carcasses to decompose faster during summer (21.38 ± 0.49 d) compared with spring (27.5 ± 0.73 d) and autumn (30.38 ± 0.50 d). This study indicates that in this region of KSA, Ch. albiceps, L. cuprina, and Li. babiyari are species useful for estimating minimal postmortem intervals.

Change of floral orientation affects pollinator diversity and their relative importance in an alpine plant with generalized pollination system, Geranium refractum (Geraniaceae)

Floral orientation may affect pollinator attraction and pollination effectiveness, and its influences may differ among pollinator species. We, therefore, hypothesized that, for plant species with a generalized pollination system, changes in floral orientation would affect the composition of pollinators and their relative contribution to pollination. Geranium refractum, an alpine plant with downward floral orientation was used in this study. We created upward-facing flowers by altering the flower angle. We compared the pollinator diversity, pollination effectiveness, and pollinator importance, as well as female reproductive success between flowers with downward- and upward-facing orientation. Results indicated that the upward-facing flowers were visited by a wider spectrum of pollinators (classified into functional groups), with higher pollinator diversity than natural flowers. Moreover, due to influences on visitation number and pollen removal, the pollinator importance exhibited by the main pollinator groups differed between flower types. Compared with natural flowers, the pollination contribution of principal pollinators (i.e., bumblebees) decreased in upward-facing flowers and other infrequent pollinators, such as solitary bees and muscoid flies, removed more pollen. Consequently, stigmatic pollen loads were lower in upward- than in downward-facing flowers. These findings reveal that floral orientation may affect the level of generalization of a pollination system and the relative importance of diverse pollinators. In this species, the natural downward-facing floral orientation may increase pollen transfer by effective pollinators and reduce interference by inferior pollinators.

Myophily in the critically endangered umbelliferous plant Ostericum palustre Besser (Apiaceae)

Globally, many plant species face human-induced habitat loss and an associated reduction in population size and vitality. Their survival is often possible only when appropriate conservation measures are taken that address the biology and ecology of these species, including their reproduction, often the most vulnerable stage in the life history of the organism. Unfortunately, little is known about these aspects of the biology of many listed plant species. For 3 years, we studied the pollination biology of the critically endangered plant species Ostericum palustre Besser (Apiaceae), one that is listed in the Bern Convention and Annex II of the EU Flora–Fauna Directive. Flowers of this taxon were visited by over 81 species of anthophilous insects derived from 5 taxonomic orders, indicating the presence of a generalised pollination system. However, detailed analyses of the frequency of insect visits, pollen loads and insect behaviour on inflorescences suggest that the plant is chiefly pollinated by large Dipterans, predominantly large Syrphid flies and Muscoid flies, that together are often responsible for over 90 % of total pollinations. Occasionally, wasps (Vespidae) may also be involved in the pollination of this species. With respect to the pollination system of O. palustre, our results indicate that this is a classic example of myophily, and generally, this species can be regarded as a functional specialist, but like many other members of Apiaceae, it is a typical “bet-hedger”. This strategy may probably increase the plant’s reproductive success in a range of habitat conditions, suggesting that the pollination system is unlikely to be the cause of rarity in this species.

Primer reporte de miasis nosocomial por Lucilia cuprina (Diptera: Calliphoridae) en Costa Rica

Nosocomial myiases can be an important condition from a public health perspective. However, cases of this condition reported in regional and worldwide biomedical literature are scarce.A case of nosocomial myiasis is reported from Costa Rica, where the species involved was Lucilia cuprina (Diptera: Calliphoridae).A 91-year-old patient with signs of immunosuppression, severe impairment of lung function, and mechanical ventilation presented larvae in both nostrils on the seventh day after admission. Five specimens were collected and processed for identification.The taxonomic identification of the specimens established that the muscoid fly species was L. cuprina.This is the first case of nosocomial myiasis reported from Costa Rica and in Latin America for which the etiological agent is L. cuprina.

Dewatered Sewage Biosolids Provide a Productive Larval Habitat for Stable Flies and House Flies (Diptera: Muscidae)

Species diversity and seasonal abundance of muscoid flies (Diptera: Muscidae) developing in biosolid cake (dewatered biosolids) stored at a wastewater treatment facility in northeastern Kansas were evaluated. Emergence traps were deployed 19 May through 20 October 2009 (22 wk) and 27 May through 18 November 2010 (25 wk). In total, 11,349 muscoid flies were collected emerging from the biosolid cake. Stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)) and house flies (Musca domestica (L.)), represented 80 and 18% of the muscoid flies, respectively. An estimated 550 stable flies and 220 house flies per square-meter of surface area developed in the biosolid cake annually producing 450,000 stable flies and 175,000 house flies. Stable fly emergence was seasonally bimodal with a primary peak in mid-July and a secondary peak in late August. House fly emergence peaked with the first stable fly emergence peak and then declined gradually for the remainder of the year. House flies tended to emerge from the biosolid cake sooner after its deposition than did stable flies. In addition, house fly emergence was concentrated around midsummer whereas stable fly emergence began earlier in the spring and continued later into the fall. Biosolid age and temperature were the most important parameters affecting emergence for house flies and stable flies, whereas precipitation was not important for either species. This study highlights the importance of biosolid cake as a larval developmental habitat for stable flies and house flies.