Muscarinic Cholinergic Receptor Antagonist Research Articles

Association analysis of ADRB3:rs4994 with urodynamic outcome, six months after a single intra-detrusor injection of botulinum toxin, in women with overactive bladder.

Intra-detrusor injection of botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT/A) is recommended as a possible treatment for patients with overactive bladder (OAB) in whom first-line therapies have failed. The c.190T > C (rs4994) polymorphism in the gene encoding the beta-3 adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) has been suggested to be associated with predisposition to OAB or with response to OAB treatment via a cholinergic muscarinic receptor antagonist. This prospective study aimed to use a urodynamic parameter-based assessment of response, six months after a single intra-detrusor injection of BoNT/A in female OAB patients, to elucidate possible association with the ADRB3 polymorphism. The study group consisted of 138 consecutive, Polish, adult, female OAB patients. Urodynamic parameters were recorded before injection of BoNT/A and at six months after administration. ADRB3:rs4994 variants were identified by the sequencing of genomic DNA extracted from buccal swabs. Apart from baseline, and relative, increase in Maximum Cystometric Capacity (MCC) six months after BoNT/A injection, no significant differences were found in urodynamic parameters between reference TT homozygotes and women with at least one C allele. Our results do not exclude that ADRB3:rs4994 variants are associated with a positive urodynamic test-based response to intra-detrusor injection of BoNT/A in females with OAB.

Neurokinin1 − cholinergic receptor mechanisms in the medial Septum-Dorsal hippocampus axis mediates experimental neuropathic pain

The neurokinin-1 receptors (NK1Rs) in the forebrain medial septum (MS) region are localized exclusively on cholinergic neurons that partly project to the hippocampus and the cingulate cortex (Cg), regions implicated in nociception. In the present study, we explored the hypothesis that neurotransmission at septal NK1R and hippocampal cholinergic mechanisms mediate experimental neuropathic pain in the rodent chronic constriction injury model (CCI). Our investigations showed that intraseptal microinjection of substance P (SP) in rat evoked a peripheral hypersensitivity (PH)-like response in uninjured animals that was attenuated by systemic atropine sulphate, a muscarinic-cholinergic receptor antagonist. Conversely, pre-emptive destruction of septal cholinergic neurons attenuated the development of pH in the CCI model that also prevented the expression of cellular markers of nociception in the spinal cord and the forebrain. Likewise, anti-nociception was evoked on intraseptal microinjection of L-733,060, an antagonist at NK1Rs, and on bilateral or unilateral microinjection of the cholinergic receptor antagonists, atropine or mecamylamine, into the different regions of the dorsal hippocampus (dH) or on bilateral microinjection into the Cg. Interestingly, the effect of L-733,060 was accompanied with a widespread decreased in levels of CCI-induced nociceptive cellular markers in forebrain that was not secondary to behaviour, suggesting an active modulation of nociceptive processing by transmission at NK1R in the medial septum. The preceding suggest that the development and maintenance of neuropathic nociception is facilitated by septal NK1R-dH cholinergic mechanisms which co-ordinately affect nociceptive processing in the dH and the Cg. Additionally, the data points to a potential strategy for pain modulation that combines anticholinergics and anti-NKRs.

Astragaloside IV as a Memory-Enhancing Agent: In Silico Studies with In Vivo Analysis and Post Mortem ADME-Tox Profiling in Mice.

Many people around the world suffer from neurodegenerative diseases associated with cognitive impairment. As life expectancy increases, this number is steadily rising. Therefore, it is extremely important to search for new treatment strategies and to discover new substances with potential neuroprotective and/or cognition-enhancing effects. This study focuses on investigating the potential of astragaloside IV (AIV), a triterpenoid saponin with proven acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-inhibiting activity naturally occurring in the root of Astragalus mongholicus, to attenuate memory impairment. Scopolamine (SCOP), an antagonist of muscarinic cholinergic receptors, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a trigger of neuroinflammation, were used to impair memory processes in the passive avoidance (PA) test in mice. This memory impairment in SCOP-treated mice was attenuated by prior intraperitoneal (ip) administration of AIV at a dose of 25 mg/kg. The attenuation of memory impairment by LPS was not observed. It can therefore be assumed that AIV does not reverse memory impairment by anti-inflammatory mechanisms, although this needs to be further verified. All doses of AIV tested did not affect baseline locomotor activity in mice. In the post mortem analysis by mass spectrometry of the body tissue of the mice, the highest content of AIV was found in the kidneys, then in the spleen and liver, and the lowest in the brain.

Non-neuronal acetylcholine is causal for cardioprotection by hypoxic preconditioning in adult rat cardiomyocytes

Abstract Introduction Brief episodes of non-lethal myocardial ischemia/reperfusion preceding more sustained ischemia and reperfusion reduce lethal ischemia/reperfusion injury. The underlying protective signaling mechanisms of such ischemic preconditioning are unclear in their details. Among other protective mediators, neuronal acetylcholine (ACh) and its signaling through cholinergic receptors is involved in protection by ischemic preconditioning. Recently, a non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system (NNCCS) has been identified, suggesting that a nervous system-independent, cardiomyocyte-derived acetylcholine signaling with signal amplification by auto- and paracrine cholinergic receptor activation could also participate in ischemic preconditioning. Aim We aimed to examine the role of NNCCS-derived ACh as a mediator of ischemic preconditioning. We therefore, in a reductionist approach, used isolated adult cardiomyocytes with hypoxic preconditioning (HPC). Methods Adult ventricular rat cardiomyocytes were isolated (from n=9 hearts), and HPC was induced by one cycle of 10 min hypoxia / 20 min reoxygenation. Thirty min normoxia served as control. Cardiomyocytes were then exposed to 30 min sustained hypoxia / 5 min reoxygenation (H/R), or a 35 min time control (TC). Cardiomyocyte viability was quantified before and after H/R or TC, respectively, by trypan blue staining. In a subgroup of experiments (cardiomyocytes from n=6 hearts) in the presence of physostigmine (0.2 mmol/L), intracellular ACh was quantified before and after HPC or normoxia and after sustained hypoxia and reoxygenation or TC, respectively, via liquid chromatography-coupled tandem mass spectrometry. Experiments on cardiomyocyte viability (from n=9 hearts) were repeated with the addition of cholinergic receptor antagonists (nicotinic: hexamethonium [1 µmol/L], muscarinic: atropine [0.1 µmol/L]) a) during the first 30 min with HPC or normoxia, b) during H/R or TC (30-65 min), or c) throughout the total 65 min protocol. Results The viability of cardiomyocytes subjected to H/R was better preserved with HPC than without (Figure A), and intracellular ACh was increased during hypoxia after prior HPC (Figure B). Cholinergic receptor antagonists during HPC did not change HPC´s protection (Figure A). However, the combination of both antagonists during sustained hypoxia abrogated HPC´s protection (Figure A), whereas nicotinic or muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists alone did not. Cholinergic receptor antagonists throughout the total 65 min also abrogated HPC´s protection (Figure A). Conclusion: The NNCCS is activated by HPC and causal for HPC´s protection. HPC increases intracellular acetylcholine, and cardiomyocyte protection is mediated via both nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors, suggesting an auto- and paracrine signal amplification on the cardiomyocyte level.Figure

Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp. seed extract ameliorates scopolamine-induced amnesia through increase in antioxidant defense mechanisms and cholinergic neurotransmission.

Decline in cholinergic function and oxidative/nitrosative stress play a central role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previous quantitative HPLC profiling analysis has revealed the presence of Pinostrobin, formononetin, vitexin and other neuroprotective flavonoids in Cajanus cajan seed extract. This study was designed to investigate the protective action of Cajanus cajan ethanol seed extract (CC) on learning and memory functions using scopolamine mouse model of amnesia. Materials and methods: Adult mice were pretreated with CC (50, 100, or 200mg/kg, p.o) or vehicle (10ml/kg, p.o) for 16 days consecutively. Scopolamine, a competitive muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist (1mg/kg, i.p.) was given an hour after CC pretreatment from days 3 to 16. The mice were subjected to behavioural tests from day 11 (open field test (OFT)/ Y-maze test (YMT) and Morris water maze task (MWM) from days 12-16. Animals were euthanized 1h after behavioral test on day 16 and discrete brain regions isolated for markers of oxidative stress and cholinergic signaling. Molecular docking analysis was undertaken to predict the possible mechanism(s) of CC-induced anti-amnesic action. pre-administration of CC significantly reversed working memory and learning deficits caused by scopolamine in YMT and MWM tests, respectively. Moreover, CC prevented scopolamine-induced oxidative and nitrosative stress radicals in the hippocampus evidenced in significant increase in glutathione (GSH) level, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities with a marked decrease in malondialdehyde (MDA) production, as well as significant inhibition of hippocampal scopolamine-induced increase in acetylcholinesterase activity by CC. The molecular docking analysis showed that out of the 19 compounds, the following had the highest binding affinity; Pinostrobin (-8.7 Kcal/mol), friedeline (-7.5kCal/mol), and lupeol (-8.2 Kcal/mol), respectively, to neuronal muscarinic M1 acetylcholine receptor, α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and amyloid beta peptide binding pockets, which further supports the ability of CC to enhance neuronal cholinergic signaling and possible inhibition of amyloid beta aggregation. This study showed that Cajanus cajan seeds extract improved working memory and learning through enhancement of cholinergic signaling, antioxidant capacity and reduction in amyloidogenesis.

Effects of Phenolic-Rich Pinus densiflora Extract on Learning, Memory, and Hippocampal Long-Term Potentiation in Scopolamine-Induced Amnesic Rats.

Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia with cognitive impairment. Various plant-derived phenolics are known to alleviate cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease by radical scavenging and strengthening synaptic plasticity activities. Here, we examined the cognition-improving effect of Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. bark extract (PBE). We identified and quantified phenolics in the PBE using a UHPLC-Orbitrap mass spectrometer. To evaluate the cognition-enhancing effects of PBE, scopolamine-induced amnesic Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats (5 weeks old) and ion channel antagonist-induced organotypic hippocampal slices of SD rats (7 days old) were used. Twenty-three phenolics were tentatively identified in PBE, 10 of which were quantified. Oral administration of PBE to the scopolamine-induced SD rats improved cognitive impairment in behavioral tests. PBE-fed SD rats showed significantly improved antioxidant indices (superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, and malondialdehyde content) and reduced acetylcholinesterase activity in hippocampal lysate compared with the scopolamine group. PBE increased the long-term potentiation (LTP) induction and rescued LTP from blockades by the muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist (scopolamine) and N-methyl-D-aspartate channel antagonist (2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid) in the organotypic hippocampal slices. These results suggest that polyphenol-rich PBE is applicable as a cognition-improving agent due to its antioxidant properties and enhancement of LTP induction.

Hippocampal cholinergic receptors and the mTOR participation in fear-motivated inhibitory avoidance extinction memory

Evidence has demonstrated the hippocampal cholinergic system and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) participation during the memory formation of aversive events. This study assessed the role of these systems in the hippocampus for the extinction memory process by submitting male Wistar rats to fear-motivated step-down inhibitory avoidance (IA). The post-extinction session administration of the nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists, mecamylamine and scopolamine, respectively, both at doses of 2 µg/µl/side, and rapamycin, an mTOR inhibitor (0.02 µg/µl/side), into the CA1 region of the dorsal hippocampus, impaired the IA extinction memory. Furthermore, the nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptor agonists, nicotine and muscarine, respectively, had a dose-dependent effect on the IA extinction memory when administered intra-CA1, immediately after the extinction session. Nicotine (0.6 µg/µl/side) and muscarine (0.02 µg/µl/side), respectively, had no effect, while the higher doses (6 and 2 µg/µl/side, respectively) impaired the IA extinction memory. Interestingly, the co-administration of muscarine at the lower dose blocked the impairment that was induced by rapamycin. This effect was not observed when nicotine at the lower dose was co-administered. These results have demonstrated the participation of the cholinergic receptors and mTOR in the hippocampus for IA extinction, and that the cholinergic agonists had a dose-dependent effect on the IA extinction memory. This study provides insights related to the behavioural aspects and the neurobiological properties underlying the early stage of fear-motivated IA extinction memory consolidation and suggests that there is hippocampal muscarinic receptor participation independent of mTOR in this memory process.

Involvement of monoaminergic systems / pathways in the mechanism of action of the antidepressant effect of Leptadenia hastata (Pers.) decne methanol leaf extract

Depression is a mental disorder that is highly prevalent in many parts of the globe and a source of burden to patients and their families. Existing treatments for depression are far from satisfactory because many patients with depression do not respond effectively and have significant adverse effects on standard antidepressant drugs. It is vital to develop novel antidepressant from medicinal plants, which are considered a good source of drugs with fewer adverse effects. An earlier study has established the in-vivo antidepressant effect of methanol leaf extract of Leptadenia hastata. However, no scientific data on its involvement in the monoaminergic mechanism of action. This study aimed to evaluate the involvement of monoaminergic systems in the antidepressant potential of methanol leaf extract of Leptadenia hastata. The acute toxicity studies of methanol leaf extract of Leptadenia hastata (MELH) was determined using Lorke's Method. The antidepressant effect of the MELH was evaluated using the Tail Suspension Test (TST) and Open Field Test (OFT) for psychostimulant effect. The possible mechanism of antidepressant actions of the MELH was also investigated by intraperitoneal pre-treatment with adrenergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, opioidergic and muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists. The intraperitonial (i.p.) median lethal dose (LD50) values were estimated to be >5000 mg/kg. Administration of standard drug, Imipramine (10 mg/kg) and MELH (250, 500, and1000 mg/kg) significantly (p<0.01) and dose-dependently decreased the duration of immobility time. However, the anti-immobility effect of the MELH was significantly (p<0.05) reversed by prazosin, cyproheptadine and naloxone, suggesting the involvement of adrenergic, serotonergic and opioidergic pathways. However, no significant interactions with dopaminergic and muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists were observed. This study concluded that the observed antidepressant effect in MELH is likely mediated through their interactions with adrenergic, serotonergic and opioidergic systems.

Pulsed Infrared Stimulation of Vertical Semicircular Canals Evokes Cardiovascular Changes in the Rat.

A variety of stimuli activating vestibular end organs, including sinusoidal galvanic vestibular stimulation, whole body rotation and tilt, and head flexion have been shown to evoke significant changes in blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR). While a role for the vertical semicircular canals in altering autonomic activity has been hypothesized, studies to-date attribute the evoked BP and HR responses to the otolith organs. The present study determined whether unilateral activation of the posterior (PC) or anterior (AC) semicircular canal is sufficient to elicit changes in BP and/or HR. The study employed frequency-modulated pulsed infrared radiation (IR: 1,863 nm) directed via optical fibers to PC or AC of adult male Long-Evans rats. BP and HR changes were detected using a small-animal single pressure telemetry device implanted in the femoral artery. Eye movements evoked during IR of the vestibular endorgans were used to confirm the stimulation site. We found that sinusoidal IR delivered to either PC or AC elicited a rapid decrease in BP and HR followed by a stimulation frequency-matched modulation. The magnitude of the initial decrements in HR and BP did not correlate with the energy of the suprathreshold stimulus. This response pattern was consistent across multiple trials within an experimental session, replicable, and in most animals showed no evidence of habituation or an additive effect. Frequency modulated electrical current delivered to the PC and IR stimulation of the AC, caused decrements in HR and BP that resembled those evoked by IR of the PC. Frequency domain heart rate variability assessment revealed that, in most subjects, IR stimulation increased the low frequency (LF) component and decreased the high frequency (HF) component, resulting in an increase in the LF/HF ratio. This ratio estimates the relative contributions of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) activities. An injection of atropine, a muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist, diminished the IR evoked changes in HR, while the non-selective beta blocker propranolol eliminated changes in both HR and BP. This study provides direct evidence that activation of a single vertical semicircular canal is sufficient to activate and modulate central pathways that control HR and BP.

The Non‐Neuronal Cholinergic System is Causal for Cardioprotection by Hypoxic Preconditioning in Isolated Adult Rat Cardiomyocytes

Introduction Brief episodes of non-lethal myocardial ischemia/reperfusion preceding more sustained ischemia reduce lethal ischemia/reperfusion injury in all species tested so far, including humans. Although this phenomenon is known for more than 3 decades, the underlying signaling mechanisms are unclear in their details. Among various cardioprotective mediators, neuronal acetylcholine (ACh) and its signaling through cholinergic receptors is certainly involved. However, a non-neuronal cardiac cholinergic system (NNCCS) has been recently identified, suggesting a nervous system-independent, cardiomyocyte-derived ACh signaling with signal amplification by autocrine cholinergic receptor activation. Aim We aimed to examine the role of NNCCS-derived ACh as a mediator of cardioprotection. We therefore in a reductionist approach used isolated adult cardiomyocytes with hypoxic preconditioning (HPC). Methods Hearts from male Lewis rats were harvested, and adult ventricular cardiomyocytes were isolated. In suspended cardiomyocytes HPC was induced by one cycle of 10 min brief hypoxia and 20 min reoxygenation. Thirty min normoxia served as control. Afterwards, cardiomyocytes were exposed to 30 min sustained hypoxia and 5 min reoxygenation (H/R) or to 35 min normoxia as time control (TC). Cardiomyocyte viability was quantified before and after H/R or TC, respectively, as the percent fraction of rod-shaped, unstained (0.5% trypan blue) cells over all cells. In parallel experiments, physostigmine (0.2 mmol/L) was added to cardiomyocyte suspensions to block the ubiquitous ACh esterase. Intracellular ACh was quantified with and without HPC via liquid chromatography-coupled tandem mass spectrometry. In subsets, the nicotinic cholinergic receptor antagonists hexamethonium (1.0 µmol/L) and α-bungarotoxine (0.1 µmol/L) or the muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist atropine (0.1 µmol/L) were added to cardiomyocyte suspensions with and without HPC, respectively, and exposure to H/R or TC, respectively, afterwards. Again, cardiomyocyte viability was quantified. Results With HPC, the viability of cardiomyocytes subjected to H/R was better preserved than without (24±1% vs. 7±1%, figure A). Also, intracellular ACh was slightly (n.s.) increased after sustained hypoxia (6±2 pmol/mg protein), but significantly with HPC (13±3 pmol/mg protein) in comparison to baseline (3±1 pmol/mg protein) or TC (3±1 pmol/mg protein, figure B). However, this increase was only detectable in the presence of physostigmine (figure B). Addition of nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists attenuated the protection by HPC to the same extent (hexamethonium: 12±2%, α-bungarotoxine: 11±1%, atropine: 10±1%, figure A). Conclusion The NNCCS is activated by HPC and causal for HPC´s protection. HPC increases intracellular ACh, and cardiomyocyte protection is mediated via both nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors, suggesting an autocrine signal amplification on the cardiomyocyte level.

Effects of biperiden (cholinergic muscarinic m1/m4 receptor antagonist) on ethanol conditioned place preference in mice

BackgroundPrevious studies suggest that muscarinic cholinergic receptors might act upon the dopamine release in the mesolimbic system and alter drug-reinforcing values related to drug craving. AimsWe examined the effects of systemic biperiden administration, a muscarinic cholinergic (M1/M4) receptor antagonist, on ethanol (dose of 2 g/Kg) conditioned place preference (CPP), neuronal activation, dopamine and its metabolites levels in the nucleus accumbens. MethodsThirty minutes before the ethanol-induced CPP test, mice received saline or biperiden at doses of 1.0, 5.0, or 10.0 mg/kg. The time spent in each compartment was recorded for 15 min. After the CPP protocol, animals were euthanized, and we investigated the activation of the nucleus accumbens by immunohistochemistry for Fos. We also quantified dopamine, homovanillic acid (HVA), and dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) levels in the nucleus accumbens by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Additionally, the rotarod was employed to evaluate the effects of biperiden on motor coordination. ResultsBiperiden at different doses (1.0, 5.0, and 10.0 mg/kg) blocked the expression of ethanol-induced CPP. These biperiden doses increased the number of Fos-positive cells and the dopamine turnover in the nucleus accumbens. None of the doses affected the motor coordination evaluated by the rotarod. ConclusionsOur results show that biperiden can modulate the effect of alcohol reward, and its mechanism of action may involve a change in dopamine and cholinergic mesolimbic neurotransmission.

Manual acupuncture stimulation of acupoints at the same and adjacent spinal segments promotes uterine contractility

To investigate the effect of manual acupuncture stimulation of acupoints at different spinal nerve segments on uterine motility and the complicated adrenergic and cholinergic receptors. Eighteen adult non-pregnant SD rats were used in the present study. The contractive activities of the uterus were measured by using a pressure transducer which was connected to an inserted water-filled balloon in the uterus via a PE tube at one end and an amplifier at the other end. Manual acupuncture needle was applied to "Zigong"(EX-CA1),"Huiyin" (CV1), "Xuehai "(SP10) and "Taichong "(LR3) acupoints located at the same or adjacent spinal nerve segments of the uterus, and to "Neiguan" (PC6) situated at the distant spinal nerve segment at about 2 Hz for 1 min, followed by observing changes of the uterine contractility. After acupuncture, α-adrenoceptor antagonist phentolamine (0.5 mg/kg, n=9) or cholinergic muscarinic (M) receptor antagonist atropine (0.5 mg/kg，n=9) was given to the rats of different acupoints respectively through tail vein, followed by observing changes of the uterine automatic systolic pressure difference (value of systolic pressure peak minuses the trough value) and frequency after manual acupuncture stimulation as well as after blocking the activities of α-adrenoceptors and M receptors, separately. After acupuncture stimulation of EX-CA1, CV1, SP10 and LR3, but not PC6, the systolic pressure difference and frequency of the uterus were signi-ficantly increased (P<0.05,P<0.001, P<0.01). Following intravenous injection of phentolamine, both the systolic pressure difference and frequency had no marked changes after acupuncture at the 5 acupoints (P>0.05). After intravenous injection of atropine, the uterine systolic pressure difference and frequency were markedly decreased compared with the basic values before acupuncture stimulation (P<0.001), but had no obvious changes after acupuncture at the 5 acupoints at both the same and distant spinal segments to the uterus (P>0.05). Manual acupuncture stimulation of acupoints at the same and adjacent spinal segments can promote the contractility of uterus in normal rats, which is realized by activating both α-adrenoceptor and cholinergic M receptors.

Neuropeptide S Displays as a Key Neuromodulator in Olfactory Spatial Memory.

Neuropeptide S (NPS) is an endogenous peptide recently recognized to be presented in the brainstem and believed to play an important role in maintaining memory. The deletion of NPS or NPS receptor (NPSR) in mice shows a deficit in memory formation. Our recent studies have demonstrated that central administration of NPS facilitates olfactory function and ameliorates olfactory spatial memory impairment induced by muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist. However, it remains to be determined if endogenous NPS is an indispensable neuromodulator in the control of the olfactory spatial memory. In this study, we examined the effects of NPSR peptidergic antagonist [D-Val5]NPS (10 and 20 nmol, intracerebroventricular) and nonpeptidergic antagonist SHA 68 (10 and 50 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) on the olfactory spatial memory using computer-assisted 4-hole-board olfactory spatial memory test in mice. Furthermore, immunofluorescence was employed to identify the distributions of c-Fos and NPSR immunoreactive (-ir) neurons in olfactory system and hippocampal formation known to closely relate to the olfactory spatial memory. [D-Val5]NPS dosing at 20 nmol and SHA 68 dosing at 50 mg/kg significantly decreased the number of visits to the 2 odorants interchanged spatially, switched odorants, in recall trial, and simultaneously reduced the percentage of Fos-ir in NPSR-ir neurons, which were densely distributed in the anterior olfactory nucleus, piriform cortex, subiculum, presubiculum, and parasubiculum. These findings suggest that endogenous NPS is a key neuromodulator in olfactory spatial memory.

Loss of endogenous analgesia leads to delayed recovery from incisional pain in a rat model of chronic neuropathic pain

BackgroundPreoperative pain and impaired endogenous analgesia are risk factors of chronic postsurgical persistent pain (CPSP). A Chronic neuropathic pain model induced by spinal nerve ligation (SNL6W) shows impaired endogenous analgesia and delayed recovery from incisional pain. Repeated amitriptyline treatment can restore the endogenous analgesia, but its effects on delayed recovery are not clear. MethodsA plantar incision was made on the side contralateral to the nerve ligation in SNL6W rats. Withdrawal thresholds were measured by von Frey filament test until 28 d after surgery. Amitriptyline (10 mg·kg−1·d−1) or vehicle was administered for 13 d perioperatively. To examine the roles of noradrenergic and cholinergic signals in the spinal dorsal horn, pharmacological antagonism, measurement of each neurotransmitter concentration, and immunohistochemistry were conducted. ResultsRecovery of the withdrawal threshold of SNL6W animals to pre-incision values required 28 d after surgery, while naive animals recovered within 14 d. Intrathecal injection of alpha2 adrenoceptor antagonist (idazoxan) or muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist (atropine) decreased the withdrawal threshold on POD14 and 21 in naive animals, but not in SNL6W rats. Repeated amitriptyline treatment attenuated the delayed recovery in SNL6W rats, and the effect was antagonized by muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist. Beside the concentration of acetylcholine and its synthetic enzyme were not altered by the treatment. ConclusionsNoradrenergic and cholinergic analgesia, which is necessary for normal recovery, is lost in the SNL6W rats. A strategy to enhance endogenous analgesia using antidepressants, rather than simple analgesia, may help to prevent CPSP in chronic pain patients.

Rewarding effects of M4 but not M3 muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonism in the rostromedial tegmental nucleus

The rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg) receives inputs from the laterodorsal tegmental and pedunculopontine tegmental nuclei, the two principle brainstem cholinergic nuclei. We tested the effects of RMTg M3 and M4 muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonism in a conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm in mice. RMTg infusions of the M3 muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist 1,1-Dimethyl-4-diphenylacetoxypiperidinium iodide (4-DAMP) do not result in the acquisition of CPP but increase locomotor activation. By contrast, RMTg infusions of the M4 muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist Tropicamide result in the acquisition of CPP but do not increase locomotor activation. The rewarding effects of RMTg Tropicamide infusions are dopamine-dependent as systemic pre-treatment with the broad-spectrum dopamine receptor antagonist flupenthixol prevents the acquisition of CPP induced by RMTg Tropicamide infusions. Under conditions of systemic dopamine receptor blockade, RMTg Tropicamide infusions significantly increase locomotor activation. These data provide further support for an important role of endogenous cholinergic input to the RMTg in reward function and suggest that the contributions of RMTg cholinergic input to rewarding and locomotor-activating effects involve differential contributions of RMTg M4 and M3 muscarinic receptors, respectively.

Strain differences in muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonism of fat intake and acquisition and expression of fat-conditioned flavor preferences in male BALB/c, C57BL/6 and SWR mice

Murine strain differences occur for both intakes of and preferences for sugars and fats. Previous studies demonstrated that the muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist, scopolamine (SCOP) more potently reduced sucrose and saccharin intakes in inbred C57BL/6 and BALB/c than SWR mice, sucrose-conditioned flavor preferences (CFP) expression in BALB/c, but not C57BL/6 or SWR mice, and sucrose-CFP acquisition in BALB/c relative to SWR and C57BL/6 mice. Although fat intake and fat-CFP are observed in all three strains, strain-specific effects were previously observed following dopamine D1, opiate and NMDA receptor antagonism of sweet and fat intake and CFP. The present study investigated whether muscarinic receptor antagonism differentially affected fat (Intralipid) intake and preferences in these strains by examining whether SCOP altered fat (Intralipid) intake and fat-CFP expression and acquisition in BALB/c, C57BL/6 and SWR mice. SCOP (0.1–10 mg/kg) significantly reduced Intralipid (5%) intake in all three strains across 2 h. In fat-CFP expression experiments, food-restricted mice consumed one flavored (conditioned stimulus (CS)+, 5 sessions) Intralipid (5%) solution and a differently-flavored (CS−, 5 sessions) Intralipid (0.5%) solution. Two-bottle CS choice tests with the two flavors mixed in 0.5% Intralipid occurred following vehicle and two SCOP doses (1, 5 mg/kg). SCOP elicited small, but significant reductions in fat-CFP expression in BALB/c and C57BL/6, but not SWR mice. In fat-CFP acquisition experiments, separate groups of BALB/c, C57BL/6 and SWR mice were treated prior to the ten acquisition training sessions with vehicle or two SCOP (2.5, 5 mg/kg) doses followed by six two-bottle choice tests without injections. SCOP eliminated fat-CFP acquisition in all three strains. Thus, muscarinic receptor signaling mediates learning, and to a lesser degree maintenance of fat-CFP while maximally inhibiting fat intake in the three strains.

Scopolamine and Medial Frontal Stimulus-Processing during Interval Timing

Neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and Alzheimer's disease (AD) involve loss of cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain. Here, we investigate how cholinergic dysfunction impacts the frontal cortex during interval timing, a process that can be impaired in PD and AD patients. Interval timing requires participants to estimate an interval of several seconds by making a motor response, and depends on the medial frontal cortex (MFC), which is richly innervated by basal forebrain cholinergic projections. Past work has shown that scopolamine, a muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist, reliably impairs interval timing. We tested the hypothesis that scopolamine would attenuate time-related ramping, a key form of temporal processing in the MFC. We recorded neuronal ensembles from eight mice during performance of a 12-s fixed-interval timing task, which was impaired by the administration of scopolamine. Consistent with past work, scopolamine impaired timing. To our surprise, we found that time-related ramping was unchanged, but stimulus-related activity was enhanced in the MFC. Principal component analyses revealed no consistent changes in time-related ramping components, but did reveal changes in higher components. Taken together, these data indicate that scopolamine changes stimulus processing rather than temporal processing in the MFC. These data could help understand how cholinergic dysfunction affects cortical circuits in diseases such as PD, DLB, and AD.

Therapeutic Effect of Novel Antidepressant Drugs Acting at Specific Receptors of Neurotransmitters and Neuropeptides.

Major depression is a frequent psychiatric disease. One- third of the depressive patients remain treatment-resistant; thus, it is urgent to find novel antidepressant drugs. In major depression, in several brain areas the neural networks involved and the alterations of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides are updated. According to these networks, new pharmacological agents and effective combinations of antidepressant drugs achieving a more efficacious antidepressant treatment are suggested. In the neural networks, the prefrontal cortex has been included. In this brain area, glutamatergic neurons, which receive an activating potential from D2 dopaminergic neurons, presynaptically inhibit M1 muscarinic cholinergic neurons via NMDA receptors. Medium spiny GABAergic/somatostatin neurons, which receive projections from M1 muscarinic cholinergic neurons, presynaptically inhibit D2 dopaminergic neurons via GABAA/somatostatin1 receptors. The combination of an NMDA receptor antagonist with an M1 muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist can achive a rapid, long-lasting antidepressant effect. In preclinical studies, the antidepressant effect of orvepitant, an NK1 receptor antagonist, has been demonstrated: this antagonist reaches a complete blockade of NK1 receptors. In clinical studies, the combination of an NMDA receptor antagonist with an M1 muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist should be investigated indepth as well as the therapeutic effect of orvepitant. In clinical studies, the antidepressant effect of a triple reuptake inhibitor should be examined and compared to current antidepressant drugs.

Cholinergic Modulation of Exposure Disrupts Hippocampal Processes and Augments Extinction: Proof-of-Concept Study With Social Anxiety Disorder

BackgroundIn rodents, context specificity of Pavlovian extinction is attenuated by manipulations that impair hippocampal function, including systemic administration of scopolamine, a muscarinic-cholinergic receptor antagonist. Context renewal translates into return of fear following exposure therapy to feared situations. We evaluated the effectiveness of scopolamine for attenuating context renewal of phobic fear in humans. MethodsA total of 60 participants (35 female, 22 male, 1 transgender, 2 undeclared) with social anxiety disorder and fear of public speaking were randomized to placebo, 0.5 mg scopolamine, or 0.6 mg scopolamine. They completed seven exposure sessions in an exposure context and subsequently tested in the exposure context (extinction retest) versus a different context (context renewal test), which were counterbalanced. Testing 1 month later occurred in the exposure context (long-term extinction retest). Fear measures included skin conductance and self-reported distress during speeches. Hippocampus-dependent cognitive tasks were completed as well. ResultsScopolamine augmented extinction across exposure sessions on skin conductance response and skin conductance level. Lower skin conductance response at context renewal in scopolamine groups relative to the placebo group was constrained to simple effects and complicated by unexpected outcomes within placebo and on self-reported fear. Scopolamine led to lower skin conductance response at long-term extinction retest. Scopolamine impaired performance on a cognitive task of hippocampal function. ConclusionsNoninvasive and well-tolerated scopolamine impaired hippocampal processes and augmented extinction during exposure. Drug-free effects persisted 1 month later. Findings at context renewal were limited and suggestive only. Further investigation is warranted with varying scopolamine dosages.

Neurobehavioural Mechanism of Antidepressant Effect of Methanol Stem Bark Extract of Adansonia digitata (Linn) in Tail Suspension Test in Mice

Aim: An earlier study has demonstrated the in-vivo antidepressant effect of methanol stem bark extract of Adansonia digitata, using soxhlet extraction protocol, but there is a lack of scientific data on its neurobehavioural mechanism of action. This study, therefore, investigated its antidepressant potentials, using cold maceration method, and determined the probable neurobehavioural mechanism of its antidepressant-like effect. Methodology: The antidepressant-like effect of the extract was evaluated in tail suspension test, at graded doses in mice. Subsequently, the probable neurobehavioural mechanism of the antidepressant-like effect of the extract was investigated by intraperitoneal pretreatment with adrenergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, and muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists; GABA agonist; nitric oxide precursor and inhibitors; and using a putative neuromodulator at NMDA receptors prior to the extract administration. Results and discussion: The extract at all the doses used, significantly (p 0.05) alteration on locomotor behaviour in mice. However, the anti-immobility potential of the extract was significantly (p<0.05) reversed by prazosin, yohimbine, sulpiride, methylene blue, L-arginine and baclofen, suggesting the involvement of adrenergic, dopaminergic, GABAerargic and nitergic pathways. Conclusion: This study, therefore, concluded that the extract may possess antidepressant effect and its mechanism may involve multiple pathways.