Murine Model Of Delayed-type Hypersensitivity Research Articles

Cyclosporin A-loaded dissolving microneedles for dermatitis therapy: Development, characterisation and efficacy in a delayed-type hypersensitivity in vivo model.

Several drugs can be used for treating inflammatory skin pathologies like dermatitis and psoriasis. However, for the management of chronic and long-term cases, topical administration is preferred over oral delivery since it prevents certain issues due to systemic side effects from occurring. Cyclosporin A (CsA) has been used for this purpose; however, its high molecular weight (1202Da) restricts the diffusion through the skin structure. Here, we developed a nano-in-micro device combining lipid vesicles (LVs) and dissolving microneedle array patches (DMAPs) for targeted skin delivery. CsA-LVs allowed the effective incorporation of CsA in the hydrophilic DMAP matrix despite the hydrophobicity of the drug. Polymeric matrix composed of poly (vinyl alcohol) (5% w/v), poly (vinyl pyrrolidine) (15% w/v) and CsA-LV dispersion (10% v/v) led to the formation of CsA-LVs@DMAPs with adequate mechanical properties to penetrate the stratum corneum barrier. The safety and biocompatibility were ensured in an in vitro viability test using HaCaT keratinocytes and L929 fibroblast cell lines. Ex vivo permeability studies in a Franz-diffusion cell setup showed effective drug retention in the skin structure. Finally, CsA-LVs@DMAPs were challenged in an in vivo murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity to corroborate their potential to ameliorate skin inflammatory conditions. Different findings like photon emission reduction in bioluminescence study, normalisation of histological damage and decrease of inflammatory cytokines point out the effectivity of CsA-LVs@DMAPs to treat these conditions. Overall, our study demonstrates that CsA-LVs@DMAPs can downregulate the skin inflammatory environment which paves the way for their clinical translation and their use as an alternative to corticosteroid-based therapies.

Immunomodulatory effects of Ulva-derived polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, and residues in a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity.

Ulva, an edible green alga, contains sulfated polysaccharides and oligosaccharides that possess immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. The objective of this study was to investigate the anti-allergic effects of Ulva-derived samples of polysaccharides (UP), oligosaccharides (UO), and residues (UR) on delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) in mice. Oral treatment of mice with UP, UO, and UR (250 mg/kg body weight) daily noticeably improved the DTH reaction as evidenced by attenuation of footpad swelling and cell infiltration at the allergen-challenge site. Although the Ulva samples had limited impacts on the production of serum total IgG, decreased concentrations of allergen-specific IgG and IgG2a and an increased concentration of IgG1 were observed in the treated mice. Moreover, treatment with them suppressed allergen-induced IFN-γ and TNF-α secretion and elevated IL-4 secretion. However, none of the Ulva sample treatments could modulate the production of IL-10. Concordantly, the in situ data reveal that the Ulva sample treatments suppressed IFN-γ and TNF-α expression at the allergen-injection site. These findings collectively suggest the potential of UP, UO, and UR as functional food candidates for the management of delayed-type hypersensitivity.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide promotes cutaneous dendritic cell functions in contact hypersensitivity

Sensory nerves regulate cutaneous local inflammation indirectly through induction of pruritus and directly by acting on local immune cells. The underlying mechanisms for how sensory nerves influence cutaneous acquired immune responses remain to be clarified. This study aimed to explore the effect of peripheral nerves on cutaneous immune cells in cutaneous acquired immune responses. We analyzed contact hypersensitivity (CHS) responses as a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity in absence or presence of resiniferatoxin-induced sensory nerve denervation. We conducted ear thickness measurements, flow cytometric analyses, and mRNA expression analyses in CHS. CHS responses were attenuated in mice that were denervated during the sensitization phase of CHS. By screening neuropeptides, we found that pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) mRNA expression was decreased in the dorsal root ganglia after denervation. Administration of PACAP restored attenuated CHS response in resiniferatoxin-treated mice, and pharmacological inhibition of PACAP suppressed CHS. Flow cytometric analysis of skin-draining lymph nodes showed that cutaneous dendritic cell migration and maturation were reduced in both denervated mice and PACAP antagonist-treated mice. The expression of chemokine receptors CCR7 and CXCR4 of dendritic cell s was enhanced by addition of PACAP invitro. These findings indicate that a neuropeptide PACAP promotes the development of CHS responses by inducing cutaneous dendritic cell functions during the sensitization phase.

035 CD4+ resident memory T cells colocalize with CD301b+ dendritic cells in perifollicular lymphocyte clusters in a murine delayed-type hypersensitivity model

035 CD4+ resident memory T cells colocalize with CD301b+ dendritic cells in perifollicular lymphocyte clusters in a murine delayed-type hypersensitivity model

Iron oxide nanoparticles attenuate T helper 17 cell responses in vitro and in vivo

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have been shown to attenuate T helper (Th)1 and Th2 cell-mediated immunity in ovalbumin (OVA)-sensitized mice. The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of IONPs on the immune responses of Th17 cells, a subset of T cells involved in various inflammatory pathologies. For in vivo study, a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) was employed. BALB/c mice received a single dose of IONPs (0.2–10 mg iron/kg) via the tail vein 1 h prior to ovalbumin (OVA) sensitization. Their footpads were subcutaneously challenged with OVA to induce DTH reactions. The expression of Th17 cell-related molecules in inflamed footpads were examined by immunohistochemistry. For in vitro study, OVA-primed splenocytes were directly exposed to IONPs (1–100 μg iron/mL), and then re-stimulated with OVA in culture. The expression of Th17 cell-related molecules were measured by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. IONP administration attenuated the number of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-17, the transcription factor ROR-γ, and chemokine receptor 6 positive cells in OVA-challenged footpads, whereas the number of transforming growth factor-β, IL-23 and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20 positive cells was not altered. Direct exposure of OVA-primed splenocytes to IONPs suppressed the production of IL-6 and IL-17, and the mRNA expression of IL-17 and ROR-γt. These data indicate that exposure to IONPs attenuates Th17 cell responses in vivo and in vitro.

Cell penetrable-mouse forkhead box P3 suppresses type 1 T helper cell-mediated immunity in a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity

Forkhead box P3 (FOXP3), which is a transcription factor, has a primary role in the development and function of regulatory T cells, and thus contributes to homeostasis of the immune system. A previous study generated a cell-permeable fusion protein of mouse FOXP3 conjugated to a protein transduction domain (PTD-mFOXP3) that successfully blocked differentiation of type 17 T helper cells in vitro and alleviated experimental arthritis in mice. In the present study, the role of PTD-mFOXP3 in type 1 T helper (Th1) cell-mediated immunity was investigated and the possible mechanisms for its effects were explored. Under Th1 polarization conditions, cluster of differentiation 4+ T cells were treated with PTD-mFOXP3 and analyzed by flow cytometry in vitro, which revealed that PTD-mFOXP3 blocked Th1 differentiation in vitro. Mice models of delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) reactions were generated by subcutaneous sensitization and challenge with ovalbumin (OVA) to the ears of mice. PTD-mFOXP3, which was administered via local subcutaneous injection, significantly reduced DTH-induced inflammation, including ear swelling (ear swelling, P<0.001; pinnae weight, P<0.05 or P<0.01 with 0.25 and 1.25 mg/kg PTD-mFOXP3, respectively), infiltration of T cells, and expression of interferon-γ at local inflammatory sites (mRNA level P<0.05) compared with the DTH group. The results of the present study demonstrated that PTD-mFOXP3 may attenuate DTH reactions by suppressing the infiltration and activity of Th1 cells.

Identification and Characterization of a Novel Class of c-Jun N-terminal Kinase Inhibitors

In efforts to identify novel small molecules with anti-inflammatory properties, we discovered a unique series of tetracyclic indenoquinoxaline derivatives that inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nuclear factor-κB/activating protein 1 activation. Compound IQ-1 (11H-indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one oxime) was found to be a potent, noncytotoxic inhibitor of pro-inflammatory cytokine [interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interferon-γ, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor] and nitric oxide production by human and murine monocyte/macrophages. Three additional potent inhibitors of cytokine production were identified through further screening of IQ-1 analogs. The sodium salt of IQ-1 inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α and IL-6 production in MonoMac-6 cells with IC(50) values of 0.25 and 0.61 μM, respectively. Screening of 131 protein kinases revealed that derivative IQ-3 [11H-indeno[1,2-b]quinoxalin-11-one-O-(2-furoyl)oxime]was a specific inhibitor of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) family, with preference for JNK3. This compound, as well as IQ-1 and three additional oxime indenoquinoxalines, were found to be high-affinity JNK inhibitors with nanomolar binding affinity and ability to inhibit c-Jun phosphorylation. Furthermore, docking studies showed that hydrogen bonding interactions of the active indenoquinoxalines with Asn152, Gln155, and Met149 of JNK3 played an important role in enzyme binding activity. Finally, we showed that the sodium salt of IQ-1 had favorable pharmacokinetics and inhibited the ovalbumin-induced CD4(+) T-cell immune response in a murine delayed-type hypersensitivity model in vivo. We conclude that compounds with an indenoquinoxaline nucleus can serve as specific small-molecule modulators for mechanistic studies of JNKs as well as a potential leads for the development of anti-inflammatory drugs.

Iron oxide nanoparticles suppressed T helper 1 cell-mediated immunity in a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity

BackgroundIt was recently reported that iron oxide nanoparticles attenuated antigen-specific humoral responses and T cell cytokine expression in ovalbumin-sensitized mice. It is presently unclear whether iron oxide nanoparticles influence T helper 1 cell-mediated immunity. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of iron oxide nanoparticles on delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), whose pathophysiology requires the participation of T helper 1 cells and macrophages.MethodsDTH was elicited by a subcutaneous challenge with ovalbumin to the footpads of mice sensitized with ovalbumin. Iron oxide nanoparticles (0.2–10 mg iron/kg) were administered intravenously 1 hour prior to ovalbumin sensitization. Local inflammatory responses were examined by footpad swelling and histological analysis. The expression of cytokines by splenocytes was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.ResultsAdministration of iron oxide nanoparticles, in a dose-dependent fashion, significantly attenuated inflammatory reactions associated with DTH, including the footpad swelling, the infiltration of T cells and macrophages, and the expression of interferon-γ, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α in the inflammatory site. Iron oxide nanoparticles also demonstrated a suppressive effect on ovalbumin-stimulated production of interferon-γ by splenocytes and the phagocytic activity of splenic CD11b+ cells.ConclusionThese results demonstrated that a single dose of iron oxide nanoparticles attenuated DTH reactions by suppressing the infiltration and functional activity of T helper 1 cells and macrophages in response to antigen stimulation.

Tumor-Derived Exosomes Confer Antigen-Specific Immunosuppression in a Murine Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity Model

Exosomes are endosome-derived small membrane vesicles that are secreted by most cell types including tumor cells. Tumor-derived exosomes usually contain tumor antigens and have been used as a source of tumor antigens to stimulate anti-tumor immune responses. However, many reports also suggest that tumor-derived exosomes can facilitate tumor immune evasion through different mechanisms, most of which are antigen-independent. In the present study we used a mouse model of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and demonstrated that local administration of tumor-derived exosomes carrying the model antigen chicken ovalbumin (OVA) resulted in the suppression of DTH response in an antigen-specific manner. Analysis of exosome trafficking demonstrated that following local injection, tumor-derived exosomes were internalized by CD11c+ cells and transported to the draining LN. Exosome-mediated DTH suppression is associated with increased mRNA levels of TGF-β1 and IL-4 in the draining LN. The tumor-derived exosomes examined were also found to inhibit DC maturation. Taken together, our results suggest a role for tumor-derived exosomes in inducing tumor antigen-specific immunosuppression, possibly by modulating the function of APCs.

Suppression of the Cell-Mediated Immune Response by a Fas-Immunoglobulin Fusion Protein

Immunosuppressive agents must not only be effective in impairing the host's allo-immune response, but should also be selective in targeting only those elements of the immune system activated by the allograft. The fact that allo-activated T cells express surface protein molecules that are not typically present on resting T cells can be exploited to specifically target this population. Fas ligand is one such molecule whose cell surface expression on T cells is dramatically up-regulated upon activation. We constructed a murine fusion protein by linking the extracellular domain of Fas to the Fc region of IgG2a. The rationale being to selectively target activated T cells via binding of its Fas moiety to cell surface Fas ligand, and then to allow the Fc moiety to invoke its usual effector mechanisms resulting in the destruction of the allo-activated T cell. Here, we describe the design and expression of Fas-IgG2a and characterize several key in vitro and in vivo properties of this fusion protein including its ability to impact on both cell-mediated immune responses and cellular apoptotic activity using a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity. In vitro, our Fas-IgG2a construct bound activated T cells via FasL and invoked cytotoxicity. In vivo, it demonstrated a prolonged half-life characteristic of an immunoglobulin-like molecule. Most significantly, it suppressed the cell-mediated immune response and diminished cellular apoptotic activity in lymphoid tissue in our murine model. Fas-IgG2a is a novel agent for delivering target-specific immunosuppression with potential applicability in the transplant setting.

Vasoactive intestinal peptide impairs leucocyte migration but fails to modify experimental murine colitis

Inflammatory bowel diseases are chronic inflammatory disorders of the gastrointestinal tract. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is a neuropeptide with known anti-inflammatory activity. We have demonstrated previously that administration of VIP inhibits leucocyte migration in a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity, and anti-inflammatory efficacy is supported by other studies. The aim of this study was to investigate the VIP effects in a murine model of intestinal inflammation. Colitis was induced in BALB/c mice by a 2.5 mg enema of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid (TNBS) and the mice were killed on day 7. Mice were administered either a 3-day (therapeutic) or 7-day (prophylactic) constant infusion of VIP by subcutaneously implanted mini-osmotic pumps, or intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of VIP on alternate days over 7 days. Clinical disease scores, weight changes, histopathology of colon tissues, plasma VIP levels, cytokine levels and chemotaxis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells were evaluated. After administration of TNBS, mice quickly developed severe colitis accompanied by dramatic body weight loss (20% by day 6) and high mortality (30%). Prophylactic treatment using high-dose VIP abrogated leucocyte chemotaxis; however, it failed to ameliorate the weight loss and mortality. Moreover, VIP delivered either by constant infusion or i.p. failed to modify the clinical, histological or cytokine markers of disease. Our studies show that, despite an ability to inhibit chemokine-induced chemotaxis of mononuclear cells, VIP was unable to modulate TNBS-induced colitis. This contrasts with the efficacy of VIP in models of mild inflammatory disease and suggests that VIP is unlikely to provide a useful model for novel anti-IBD therapy.

Imatinib mesylate inhibits T-cell proliferation in vitro and delayed-type hypersensitivity in vivo

AbstractImatinib mesylate (STI571, imatinib) inhibited DNA synthesis in primary human T cells stimulated with allogeneic mature dendritic cells or phytohemagglutinin (PHA) but did not induce apoptosis. The values for the concentration that inhibits 50% (IC50) of T-cell proliferation stimulated by dendritic cells and PHA were 3.9 μM and 2.9 μM, respectively, that is, within the concentration range found in patients treated with imatinib mesylate. Interestingly, imatinib mesylate did not inhibit expression of T-cell activation markers CD25 and CD69, although it reduced the levels of activated nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and changed phosphorylation or protein levels of Lck, ERK1/2, retinoblastoma protein, and cyclin D3. When T cells were washed free of imatinib mesylate, they proliferated in response to PHA, demonstrating that inhibition is reversible. Treatment with imatinib mesylate led to accumulation of the cells in G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. The in vitro observations were confirmed in vivo in a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH). In mice treated with imatinib mesylate, DTH was reduced in comparison to sham-injected controls. However, the number of splenic T cells was not reduced showing that, similarly to in vitro observations, imatinib mesylate inhibited T-cell response, but did not cause apoptosis. These findings indicate that long-term administration of high-dose imatinib mesylate might affect immunity.

Effects of AGI-1096, a novel antioxidant compound with anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties, on rodent allograft arteriosclerosis.

AGI-1096 is a novel phenolic intracellular antioxidant with anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties. In vitro, AGI-1096 inhibited the inducible expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1, E-selectin, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1 in endothelial cells and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin (IL)-1beta secretion from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells. It also inhibited serum-stimulated proliferation of aortic smooth-muscle cells. In vivo, AGI-1096 demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties in a murine delayed-type hypersensitivity model. Given these antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties, we reasoned that AGI-1096 may be able to prevent chronic allograft arteriosclerosis. This hypothesis was tested in a rodent aortic transplantation model. Donor descending aortas from August-Copenhagen-Irish rats were heterotopically transplanted into Lewis rat abdomens in end-to-end fashion. Animals were assigned to six groups as follows: AGI-1096 0 mg/kg per day (vehicle, n = 10), 10 mg/kg per day (n = 10), 20 mg/kg per day (n = 10), 40 mg/kg per day (n = 10), positive control (cyclosporine A 10 mg/kg per day by oral gavage, n = 10), and isograft negative control (Lewis-to-Lewis, n = 5). AGI-1096 was administrated subcutaneously to recipient animals three days before the surgery and for 90 days thereafter. On day 90, the paraffin-embedded allograft sections were stained with Elastin-van Gieson's stain, and the intima/media (I/M) ratio and luminal narrowing (1%LN) was assessed by digital morphometry. AGI-1096 demonstrated dose-dependent lowering of the I/M ratio and %LN when compared with vehicle controls. This is the first study to show that treatment of allograft recipients with AGI-1096 decreases the incidence of transplant arteriosclerosis. These data suggest that AGI-1096 may be a promising new therapeutic agent for use in clinical transplantation.

Cutting edge: vasoactive intestinal peptide acts as a potent suppressor of inflammation in vivo by trans-deactivating chemokine receptors.

Chemokines mediate trafficking of leukocytes to sites of inflammation and immune responses through activation of G protein-coupled receptors, which thereby provide appealing targets for novel anti-inflammatory agents. Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is an immunosuppressive neurotransmitter. We show that VIP inhibited the function of chemokine receptors on monocytes and CD4(+) T lymphocytes, with impaired chemotaxis and calcium flux in response to the cognate chemokine ligands CXCL12, CCL3, CCL4, and CCL5. This was mediated by VIP receptor type 1 and was not caused by chemokine receptor internalization. However, VIP caused dose-dependent phosphorylation of the chemokine receptor CCR5. This trans-deactivation process was studied in a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity: continuous infusion of VIP resulted in significant abrogation of monocyte and lymphocyte infiltration. Circulating mononuclear cells from VIP-infused mice were unable to respond to chemokines. VIP may provide a novel approach to treatment of inflammatory diseases through inhibition of chemokine-dependent leukocyte recruitment.

Langerhans' cells in the murine oral mucosa in the inductive phase of delayed type hypersensitivity with 1-chloro-2, 4-dinitrobenzene.

We created a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) to 1-chloro-2, 4-dinitrobenzene (DNCB). Using this murine model, we compared oral mucosal sensitization and skin sensitization for the difference in reaction during the elicitation phase. Evaluation of sensitizability, using the mouse ear swelling test (MEST) after oral mucosal or skin sensitization, showed that the ear swelling response peaked 24 h after challenge. The optimal induction concentration was 1.0% in both oral mucosal and skin sensitization, resulting in a positive reaction rate of 100%. However, the ear swelling response 24 h after challenge with the optimal concentration of DNCB (1.0%) was significantly lower in oral mucosal than in skin sensitization. We compared the oral mucosal and skin sensitization sites for the number of Langerhans' cells (LC) and the antigen-presenting capability in the induction phase. The numbers of F4/80+ major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II+ LC before induction did not differ significantly between the oral mucosa and the skin. After induction, F4/80+ MHC class II+ LC increased in number, but the increase was significantly smaller in the oral mucosa than in the skin. MEST on anti-CD86 antibody-administered mice showed that ear swelling was similarly suppressed after oral mucosal or skin sensitization. In murine models of DTH after oral mucosal sensitization, the number of F4/80+CD86+ LC increased after induction, but the increase was significantly smaller than that in murine models of DTH after skin sensitization. This study showed that, in murine models of DTH, oral mucosal sensitization elicited a weaker reaction than skin sensitization. This was presumably because oral mucosal sensitization induced fewer LC, resulting in lower antigen-presenting capability.

In vitro cellular handling and in vivo targeting of E-selectin-directed immunoconjugates and immunoliposomes used for drug delivery to inflamed endothelium.

Drug targeting to activated endothelial cells is now being explored as a new approach to interfere with chronic inflammation. This study compares a dexamethasone-anti-E-selectin immunoconjugate (dexa-AbEsel) with anti-E-selectin immunoliposomes (AbEsel-immunoliposomes) that contain dexamethasone, regarding in vitro binding and internalization as well as in vivo accumulation in activated endothelial cells. In vitro binding and internalization of dexa-AbEsel and the AbEsel-immunoliposomes into TNFalpha-activated HUVECs was studied using confocal laser scanning microscopy and radiolabeled compounds. Tissue accumulation of both compounds was studied in a murine delayed-type hypersensitivity model using immunohistochemistry. Both preparations were selectively internalized by activated endothelial cells. Dexa-AbEsel was internalized by activated HUVECs to a larger extent than the AbEsel-immunoliposomes, although in theory the high drug-loading capacity of the liposomes may enable a larger amount of dexamethasone to be delivered intracellularly. Both dexa-AbEsel and AbEsel-immunoliposomes accumulated in activated endothelial cells in murine inflamed skin. AbEsel-immunoliposomes, but not dexa-AbEsel, were additionally detected in control skin, though to a lesser extent, and in macrophages of the liver and the spleen. Studies on therapeutic effects and side effects in models of chronic inflammation are now necessary to establish pharmacodynamics of dexa-AbEsel and/or AbEsel-immunoliposomes in the treatment of chronic inflammation.

Contact hypersensitivity: a simple model for the characterization of disease-site targeting by liposomes

A murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) is characterized with respect to liposome accumulation at a site of inflammation. Mice were sensitized by painting the abdominal region with a solution of 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) and inflammation was induced 5 days later by challenging the ear with a dilute solution of DNFB. The inflammatory response was readily monitored by measuring ear thickness (edema) and radiolabeled leukocyte infiltration. Maximum ear swelling and cellular infiltration occurred 24 h after the epicutaneous challenge with the ear returning to normal size after approximately 72 h. We demonstrate that large unilamellar vesicles (LUV) accumulate at the site of inflammation to a level more than 20-fold higher than that measured in the untreated ear. Vesicle delivery to the ear correlated with increased vascular leakage resulting from endothelium remodeling in response to DNFB challenge, and was not a consequence of increased local tissue blood volume. Extravasation occurred only during the first 24 h after ear challenge; after this time the permeability of the endothelium to vesicles returned to normal. We further showed that LUV with a diameter of 120 nm exhibit maximum levels of accumulation, that a polyethylene glycol surface coating does not increase delivery, and that the process can be inhibited by the application of topical corticosteroids at the time of induction. These data and the inflammation model are discussed with respect to developing lipid-based drug delivery vehicles designed to accumulate at inflammatory disease sites.

Anti-CD3:anti-IL-2 receptor-bispecific mAb-mediated immunomodulation. Low systemic toxicity, differential effect on lymphoid tissue, and inhibition of cell-mediated hypersensitivity.

An anti-CD3:anti-CD25 (CD3,25) bispecific mAb was developed with the objective of combining the advantages of the parent anti-CD3 and anti-CD25 mAbs. The in vivo effects of the CD3,25 were examined in comparison to the parent Abs. The CD3,25 was well tolerated in vivo, in contrast to the parent anti-CD3 mAb, which induced systemic toxicity in recipient animals. Anti-CD3 mAb induced cell death, lymphoblast formation, and T cell activation in peripheral lymphoid organs; these were observed to a lesser extent in CD3,25-treated animals. In the thymus, anti-CD3 caused a progressive depletion of the CD4+ CD8+ "double positive" thymocytes, which was not seen in CD3,25-treated animals. This finding suggests that monovalent CD3 binding is insufficient to induce thymocyte apoptosis. Animals treated with a combination of anti-CD3 and anti-CD25 mAbs demonstrated changes in the lymphoid organs that were similar to anti-CD3-treated mice. This finding demonstrates that the effect of the CD3,25 is different than the sum of the parent Abs and suggests that the bispecific nature of the CD3,25 results in a reagent with unique immunomodulatory properties. The functional efficacy of the CD3,25 was assessed in a murine model of delayed-type hypersensitivity. The CD3,25 was as effective as the anti-CD3 mAb in inhibiting the delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction and was more effective than the parent anti-CD25 mAb. These data demonstrate that appropriately designed bispecific mAbs can be used as effective immunosuppressive agents with low systemic toxicity.

Pharmacologic manipulation of a four day murine delayed type hypersensitivity model.

A murine delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) model was developed as a tool for drug discovery. Time course studies indicated that hind paw swelling was maximal at four days post-sensitization with picryl chloride. A pharmacological survey involving daily administration of drugs revealed that as a class, the glucocorticoids (e.g. dexamethasone and corticosterone) were the most potent inhibitors of the DTH response. The immunosuppressants, methotrexate, cyclosporine A, cyclophosphamide, and azathioprine, were all able to suppress the DTH response, with methotrexate being the most potent suppressor of paw swelling. Likewise, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agents (e.g. indomethacin, piroxicam, diclofenac, and naproxen) all suppressed the DTH response, with indomethacin and piroxicam being the most potent suppressors. A series of central nervous system affecting drugs, including serotonin agonists [e.g. trifluromethylphenylpiperazine (tfMPP), 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP), quipazine, and 8-hydroxy-DPAT hydrobromide (8-OH DPAT)], and serotonin antagonists (e.g. cyproheptadiene, ketanserin, and mianserin) were examined in the 4 day DTH model. Except for 8-OH DPAT, all of the serotonin agonists were able to suppress the DTH response, with mCPP being the most potent suppressor. In contrast, none of the tested serotonin antagonists had any effect on the DTH response. The histamine antagonists (e.g. cimetidine and chlorphineramine) were largely ineffective in suppressing the DTH response. These data provide a pharmacological profile for a series of immunomodulator, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory, and central nervous system active compounds in a classic immunologic model.

Concomitant administration of hapten and IL-2-toxin (DAB486-IL-2) results in specific deletion of antigen-activated T cell clones.

During the proliferative burst after Ag recognition, T cells express cell-surface, high-affinity IL-2R. The importance of IL-2R+ T cells in supporting/mediating tissue injury has been documented by the ability of mAb anti-IL2R therapies to prevent allograft rejection and autoimmunity. The delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) response, an experimental model of T-dependent immunity, offers the possibility of studying responses mounted against defined Ag. We previously reported that the chimeric IL-2 toxin (DAB486-IL-2) prevents DTH responses and selectively eliminates activated IL-2R bearing CD4 and CD8 T cells from lymph nodes draining the site of inflammation. We have examined the duration of immunosuppression and relative specificity of action of DAB486-IL-2 and anti-CD3 mAb for Ag-activated clones in a murine model of DTH using two different noncross-reacting haptens. Treatment with DAB486-IL-2 generates a state of selective unresponsiveness to subsequent challenge with the hapten introduced during the therapeutic period. Immediately after cessation of DAB486-IL-2 therapy, immunization with an unrelated hapten induces a normal vigorous immune response. By comparison, anti-CD3 mAb treatment causes a broad immunosuppression because unrelated haptens introduced after anti-CD3 therapy do not evoke a vigorous immune response. After cessation of DAB486-IL-2 toxin treatment response to the hapten is eventually restored probably by cells trafficking from the thymus, because thymectomized hosts remain unresponsive to the hapten. Taken together these data reinforce the role of the IL-2R as an important target for immunosuppression in T cell-mediated immune reactions. DAB-486-IL-2 treatment confers highly selective immunosuppression.