Municipal Wastewater Reclamation Research Articles

Indirect Evidence that Colloidal Deposition Inside a Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Membrane Exacerbated Fouling during Municipal Wastewater Reclamation

Indirect Evidence that Colloidal Deposition Inside a Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Membrane Exacerbated Fouling during Municipal Wastewater Reclamation

Flow-through electrode system (FES): An effective approach for biofouling control of reverse osmosis membranes for municipal wastewater reclamation

Emerging electrochemical disinfection techniques provide a promising pathway to the biofouling control of reverse osmosis (RO) process. However, the comparative effectiveness and mechanism of it under flow-through conditions with low voltage remains unclear. This study investigated the effect of a flow-through electrode system (FES) with both direct current (DC) and alternating pulse current (AC) on RO biofouling control compared with chlorine disinfection. At the initial stage of biofouling development, the normalized flux of AC-FES (67% on Day 5) was saliently higher than the control group (56% on Day 5). Subsequently, the normalized fluxes of each group tended similarity in their differences until the 20th day. After mild chemical cleaning, the RO membrane in the AC-FES group reached the highest chemical cleaning efficiency of 58%, implying its foulant was more readily removable and the biofouling was more reversible. The biofouling layer in the DC-FES group was also found to be easily cleanable. Morphological analysis suggested that the thickness and compactness of the fouling layers were the major reasons for the fouling behavior difference. The abundance of 4 fouling-related abundant genera (>1%), which were Pseudomonas, Thiobacillus, Sphingopyxis, and Mycobacterium exhibited a salient correlation with the biofouling degree. The operating cost of FES was also lower than that of chlorine disinfection. In summary, AC-FES is a promising alternative to chlorine disinfection in RO biofouling control, as it caused less and easy-cleaning biofouling layer mainly due to two advantages: a) reducing the regrowth potential after disinfection of the bacteria, leading to alleviated initial fouling, (b) reshaping the microbial community to those with weaker biofilm formation capacity.

Effective control of DBPs formation and membrane fouling in catalytic ozonation membrane reactor for municipal wastewater reclamation

This study aimed to evaluate the performance of different ceramic membranes, namely CuMn2O4 (CMO), g-C3N4 (CN), and CuMn2O4/g-C3N4 (CMO/CN) ceramic membrane (CM), in a catalytic ozonation membrane reactor (COMR) for municipal wastewater reclamation. The results demonstrated that CMO/CM and CMO/CN/CM used in the COMR exhibited high performance in terms of flux, removal efficiency of effluent organic matter (EfOM), control of disinfection by-products formation potential (DBPs-FP), and mitigation of membrane fouling. Notably, catalytic ozonation by CMO/CM showed superior reduction in DBPs formation (40.6 % of nitrogenous DBPs, 83.4 % of halogenated hydrocarbons, 36.6 % of haloacetic acids). Furthermore, significant inhibition of both organic fouling and biofouling was observed in the COMR. The addition of O3 altered the membrane fouling mechanism from gel layer formation to intermediate blocking. Ozonation primarily reduced the physically reversible fouling while catalytic ozonation additionally mitigated physically irreversible fouling. In addition to the almost complete removal of total cells and proteins, catalytic ozonation by CMO/CM further cleaned the α-polysaccharides and β-polysaccharides on the membrane surface, resulting in a 55.3 % reduction in biofilm thickness and demonstrating strong self-cleaning properties. These findings have important implications for enhancing the overall performance and durability of COMR systems in municipal wastewater reclamation.

Temporal dynamic of biofouling on the ultrafiltration membrane for wastewater reclamation and strategy for biofouling pertinence mitigation

Biofouling deteriorates water quality, increases energy consumption after long-term porous membrane filtration, and shortens membrane lifespan. However, the mechanism of long-term biofouling and corresponding effective anti-biofouling strategies used in municipal wastewater reclamation remains unclear. Herein, the biofouling mechanism was unveiled through revealing the biofouling development and temporal shifts of microbial communities, and correspondingly strategy to mitigate biofouling was proposed to improve initial anti-attachment and to reduce the extracellular matrix content. At the initial stage of biofouling, a sharp drop (68%) in the energy barrier was found according to XDLVO theory, which was attributed to the change of membrane surface due to the formation and colonization of biofilm by Dojkabacteria, Saprospiraceae, Mycobacterium with high EPS secretion capabilities. At the second stage, we demonstrated EPS-protein as the key factors as the main sources that resulted in irreversible community adhesion by Hydrogenophaga and Acinetobacter. At the maturation and aging stage, Bacilli played a vital role in the mature biofilm with fragmentation of the biofouling layer aggregates occurred. Based on the biofouling mechanism, the target anti-biofouling strategy combining PES-PDA-Ag membranes with d-tyrosine was proposed to control biofouling development at the initial and stable stages. This strategy prolonged filtration time about 129%, contributing to at least 94.1% antimicrobial properties and 1.43 times improvement in the energy barrier by disrupting the biofilm integrity to minimize membrane resistance. This finding provides an in-depth understanding of biofouling development and benefits effective and feasible biofouling control.

Superior performance of catalytic ozonation on molecular-level transformation of effluent organic matter and self-cleaning property in catalytic ozonation membrane reactor

Catalytic ozonation membrane reactor (COMR) is one of the most promising technologies for municipal wastewater reclamation. Herein, we evaluated superior performance of catalytic ozonation in COMR through filtration of effluent organic matter (EfOM) using the origin and three catalytic membranes. We found that filtration primarily contributed to rejection of protein-like fluorescence enriched in relatively high-oxygen compounds (O/C >0.4) with high molecular weight and catalytic ozonation further removed humic-like materials and highly unsaturated, aromatic and reduced compounds (O/C<0.4; H/C<1.3), demonstrating complementary function of catalytic ozonation and filtration. The superior performance of catalytic ozonation than ozonation is reflected in higher removal of medium molecular weighted humic-like materials and S-containing compounds, enhancing the mineralization and reaction extent of EfOM. Additionally, catalytic ozonation exhibited strong self-cleaning property and eliminated irreversible membrane fouling. Our findings provide molecular-level insights into the reaction mechanism governing the COMR towards municipal wastewater reclamation.

Titanium metal organic framework based electrocatalytic membrane for fast antibiotics removal: Synergy of defects and hierarchical pore

The spread of antibiotics became a serious risk to human health during wastewater reclamation. Herein, a novel electrocatalytic membrane (ECM) was constructed by facile incorporation of titanium metal organic frameworks (Ti-MOFs) with tunable defect and pore structure into polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane for antibiotics removal under electro-assistance. The results showed Ti-MOFs with moderate missing-linker defects and hierarchical pores (Ti-MOFs-1) imparted the membrane with much higher water flux (618.6 L·m−2·h−1·bar−1), oxygen evolution potential (2.16 V), electrochemically active surface area (0.0306 cm2), and lower charge-transfer resistance compared to defect-free Ti-MOFs, thereby rendering higher electrocatalytic activity, increasing tetracycline (TC) removal by more than 40% and reducing the toxicities of intermediates. Interestingly, ECM presented a volcano-type trend in TC removal with the gradual increase of defects and pore size in Ti-MOFs due to the synergistic effect of moderately exposed active sites for generation of •OH and •O2– and hierarchical pore feature for accelerated mass transfer of antibiotics toward the catalytic sites. In addition, the application of ECM in reclamation of simulated municipal wastewater was evaluated. The efficient antibiotics removal efficiency (100%), electrically-driven self-cleaning ability (flux recovery = 100%) and electrochemical stability with low residence time (50.2 s) and energy consumption (0.533 W•h/m3) verify its potential in antibiotics removal.

Municipal wastewater reclamation: Reclaimed water for hydrogen production by electrolysis – A case study

This paper presents an analysis of a treatment system selection for municipal wastewater stream based on the DuPont Water Solutions WAVE software. The results obtained based on an analysis of 7 different processing cases studies (ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis) confirmed that the application of 2-pass membrane systems enables the reclamation of water from municipal wastewater that fulfills the requirements concerning the quality of water intended as electrolyzer feedstock, as the obtained water exhibited a conductivity of < 5 µS/cm. Depending on the analyzed case study, the attainable level of water reclamation ranged from 68.8 to 84.1 % at an energy consumption of 606.1 – 2 694 kWh/d. The results of this work not only confirm that the selected processing solutions make it possible to reclaim water from municipal wastewater, but also confirm the necessity of using software to simulate the membrane system operation to select the most economic and cost-effective solution.

Direct ammonium recovery from the permeate of a pilot-scale anaerobic MBR by biochar to advance low-carbon municipal wastewater reclamation and urban agriculture

The rapidly evolving global climate change has an unprecedented impact sustainable water supply, but also challenges and water shortage global food security. In such a dynamic situation, this study explored direct recovery of ammonium from the effluent of a pilot-scale anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) treating actual municipal wastewater via biochar adsorption, while the use of produced ammonium-loaded biochar for urban agriculture was also demonstrated. Results showed that modified biochar could remove almost all ammonium in the pilot AnMBR permeate at an empty bed contact time of 30 mins. Results showed that ammonium extracted from the ammonium-loaded biochar could promote the germination of Daikon radish seeds. It was further observed that the fresh weight of Pak Choi (a typical leafy vegetable) planted in the soils augmented with the ammonium-loaded biochar was 42.5 g per vegetable versus 18.5 g per vegetable in the control, indicating a 130 % of increase in the Pak Choi productivity. In addition, the Pak Choi in grown the ammonium-loaded biochar augmented soils appeared to be much bigger with larger leaves compared to the control. It was also worth to note that the ammonium-loaded biochar could significantly stimulate the root development of Pak Choi, i.e., 20.7 cm over 10.5 cm obtained in the control. More importantly, the amount of carbon emission reduced through returning ammonium-loaded biochar to urban agriculture could offset the treatment process-associated direct and indirect carbon emission.

The role of heat/powdered activated carbon/persulfate in membrane fouling control in a coupled aerobic granular sludge–membrane system for municipal wastewater reclamation

This study proposed and applied an innovative heat/powdered activated carbon (PAC)/persulfate (PS) pre-treatment system for the first time in an aerobic granular sludge–membrane system (AGSMS). We examined the effects of the heat/PAC/PS system on membrane fouling mitigation and contaminant removal and qualitatively evaluated the contribution of adsorption and oxidation to membrane fouling control. Compared to other pre-treatment systems, the heat/PAC/PS system could enhance the removal of pollutants, reduce fouling resistance, and delay the decline of permeation flux, resulting in low foulant content on the membrane surface and formation of a loose and porous cake layer. According to radical scavenging experiments, the excellent heat/PAC/PS system pre-treatment performance was attributed to the PAC adsorption capacity and non-radical oxidation pathway. Thermal synergy played a significant role in promoting adsorption and oxidation abilities. The extended Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek theory indicated that the high-energy barrier in the heat/PAC/PS system was an important factor in inhibiting the adhesion of foulants to the membrane surface. Furthermore, the correlation analysis suggested that membrane fouling control should focus on the removal of chemical oxygen demand and suspended solids. This study provides a new approach for membrane fouling mitigation through AGSMS in municipal wastewater treatment.

Low feed water temperature effects on RO membrane fouling development for municipal wastewater reclamation

Understanding the RO membrane fouling development at low feed water temperature plays an important role in the membrane fouling control for wastewater reclamation. In this study, RO membrane fouling development at low feed water temperature (10 °C) was investigated using a lab-scale cross-flow RO apparatus by comparing with that at ambient temperature (25 °C). At low temperature, the normalized flux decline of RO membrane was much milder than that at ambient temperature. The final normalized flux was twice of that at 25 °C. The foulants and biofilm gradually accumulated on the RO membrane, while the living bacteria on the membrane remained stable after a period of running time because of the living space limitation. The amount of the foulants and biofilm thickness at 10 °C were approximately 1/2 of that at 25 °C, while the DOC dissolved by alkali on the membranes at 10 °C were higher than and those at 25 °C. Therefore, alkali cleaning might be more effective in alleviating the membrane fouling at low temperature. Under the selection pressure of low temperature, the microbial community on the RO membranes gradually differentiated from that at ambient temperature. Especially, under low temperature condition, relative abundance of Patescibacteria, which was adapted to oligotrophic, low temperature and high salt environments, was found to gradually increase over time.

Defective MOFs-based electrocatalytic self-cleaning membrane for wastewater reclamation: Enhanced antibiotics removal, membrane fouling control and mechanisms

In order to resolve the poor antibiotics rejection and serious fouling of ultrafiltration (UF) membrane during municipal wastewater reclamation, a novel anodic membrane (defective UiO-66 (D-UiO-66)/Graphite/Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)) with high pure water flux (596.1 L•h − 1•m − 2•bar−1) was fabricated by incorporating defective zirconium based metal-organic framework (D-UiO-66) and conductive graphite particles into PVDF matrix and applied in the coupling of electro-oxidation and membrane filtration process. Compared to the other anodic membranes (i.e., Graphite/PVDF and UiO-66/Graphite/PVDF), D-UiO-66/Graphite/PVDF possesses superior anti-fouling and self-cleaning abilities (flux recovery=100%, model foulant: bovine serum albumin) in both intermittent and continuous supply of electric field under current density of 0.01 mA/cm2; moreover, efficient antibiotics (tetracycline, norfloxacin, tylosin and sulfamethoxazole) removal (> 96.6%) and bactericidal efficiency against E. coli and S. aureus (100%) were achieved simultaneously without the addition of chemical reagents due to the higher electrocatalytic activity of anodic membrane for oxidation of pollutants by •OH and •O2– free radicals. Three degradation pathways of antibiotics were proposed and the self-cleaning mechanism of membrane was dominated by the synergy of the partial mineralization and the reduced fouling potential of foulants after oxidation as revealed by the increase in hydrophilicity, and decrease in negative charge and molecular weight. The fabricated membrane also presents excellent electrochemical stability, separation and self-cleaning performance for treatment of municipal secondary effluent during long-term filtration with low electric energy consumption, which is promising in wastewater reclamation.

Necessity of direct energy and ammonium recovery for carbon neutral municipal wastewater reclamation in an innovative anaerobic MBR-biochar adsorption-reverse osmosis process

With the speedy evolution of global climate change and water shortage, there is a growing need for the energy and carbon neutral wastewater reclamation technology. To tackle this challenge, an innovative anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR)-biochar adsorption-RO process was developed for reclaiming municipal wastewater to high-grade product water with the aims for achieving the energy and carbon neutrality. It was found that about 95.6% of influent COD was removed by AnMBR with direct generation of biomethane, while ammonium-N in AnMBR permeate was fully recovered through biochar adsorption. The effluent from biochar adsorber with significantly lowered divalent ions concentrations was further reclaimed by RO at reduced cost and energy consumption. The energy demand and the total carbon emissions in the proposed process were estimated to be 0.50 kWh/m3 and 633 g CO2e/ m3 against 0.86 kWh/m3 and 1101 g CO2e/ m3 in the current conventional activated sludge (CAS)-microfiltration-RO process. It was further shown that the ammonium recovery via biochar adsorption could offset about 0.503 kWh/m3 that was originally utilized for chemically producing recovered ammonia by the Haber-Bosch method, equivalent to a carbon offsetting of 498 g CO2e/m3, leading to a net carbon emission of 135 CO2e/m3 in the proposed process, which was only about 12% of that in the current CAS-MF-RO process. These suggested that a carbon-neutral municipal wastewater reclamation might be achievable through concurrent carbon reduction and offsetting, while carbon offsetting via ammonia recovery appeared to be a game-changer towards the carbon-neutral operation. Consequently, it is expected that this study can shed lights on how energy- and carbon-neutrality would be achieved by innovating municipal wastewater reclamation technology.

Membrane aging effects on water recovery during full-scale potable reuse: Mathematical optimization of backwashing frequency for constant-flux microfiltration

One tool in efforts to tackle the ever growing problem of water scarcity is municipal wastewater reclamation to produce drinking water. Microfiltration (MF) is a central technology for potable reuse because it is highly effective in removing pathogenic protozoa, bacteria, and other colloids and for reverse osmosis pretreatment. However, as microfiltered materials accumulate at the membrane surface, its productivity is reduced requiring periodic removal of foulants. A mathematical model of MF is described in the context of hollow fiber filtration that focused on optimizing constant flux operation with backwashing. Design curves were also proposed for determining backwash timing. The model analysis is evaluated against real-world MF fouling for membranes that range in age from a few weeks to three years, observed at the world’s largest water reuse facility operated by the Orange County Water District. The presented model compares well with the full-scale operational data, and model parameters accurately capture variations in fouling kinetics with membrane age, providing clues to changes in optimal regeneration timing and frequency as membrane performance declines over long time scales.

Circular economy is game-changing municipal wastewater treatment technology towards energy and carbon neutrality

With gradual transformation of global linear economy to circular economy, the present municipal wastewater treatment processes designed with the philosophy of take-make-dispose are facing incredible economic and environmental pressures due to high energy consumption, emission of greenhouse gases, waste generation etc. In such a situation, “we cannot solve our problems with the same thinking we used when we created them” as said Albert Einstein. Therefore, this article intends to trigger discussion on how circular economy is to game-change municipal wastewater treatment technology towards energy and carbon neutrality. As illustrated with anaerobic MBR as an example, municipal wastewater indeed is a regenerative resource of freshwater, energy and mineral nutrients rather than a waste. This will lead to a paradigm shift of municipal wastewater engineering from simple treatment to recovery and reuse of multiple resources for synergistically addressing the water-energy-resource-greenhouse gases nexus in an environmentally and economically sustainable manner, with the ultimate goals of energy and carbon neutrality in municipal wastewater reclamation.

Towards carbon neutrality and water sustainability: An integrated anaerobic fixed-film MBR-reverse osmosis-chlorination process for municipal wastewater reclamation

Freshwater resilience is facing to an increasing challenge, while carbon neutral wastewater reclamation has been put onto agenda in more and more countries. The activated sludge-microfiltration (MF)-reverse osmosis (RO) process has been currently adopted for reclamation of municipal wastewater to high-grade product water (e.g. NEWater). However, the conventional activated sludge (CAS) unit in this process has the drawbacks of excessive sludge generation, high energy consumption, greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions etc. To address these emerging issues, an integrated anaerobic fixed-film membrane bioreactor (AnfMBR)-RO-chlorination process was developed in this study. Results showed that about 99.9% of COD, 99.3% of phosphate and 95.3% of NH4+-N were removed in the AnfMBR-RO process, while breakpoint chlorination served as a polishing step when the NH4+-N concentration in RO permeate exceeded the typical NH4+-N concentration (e.g. 1 mg/L) of NEWater. The net energy consumption and total GHG emissions in the proposed integrated process were estimated to be 0.33 kWh/m3 and 310.2 g CO2e/m3 influent wastewater treated, respectively, which were 64% and 74% less than those in the current municipal wastewater reclamation process. Consequently, this study offers an alternative path to bring municipal wastewater reclamation one step closer to carbon neutrality and water sustainability.

Key Problems and Novel Strategy of Controlling Emerging Trace Organic Contaminants During Municipal Wastewater Reclamation

Emerging trace organic contaminants (TOrCs) have been ubiquitously detected in municipal wastewater. TOrCs show low concentrations but are usually harmful to aquatic biota and recalcitrant to treatments. The advanced treatment of TOrCs is challenged by four main aspects. First, it is hard to qualify the chemical structure and concentrations of TOrCs, which are typically very low. Second, risk assessment results vary with the selection of target-species and toxicity-endpoints, which makes it hard to regulate priority lists and concentration limits. Third, TOrCs account for less than 0.01% of the total organics in wastewater. Thus, TOrCs cannot be selectively and efficiently removed by conventional treatments. Fourth, it is hard to optimize and manage the treatment trains of TOrCs. In this manuscript, a new strategy combing non-targeting TOrC screening and TOrC "fingerprinting" are proposed to overcome the difficulties of quantification and treatment optimization. Based on this, the standards and regulations to control the TOrCs in reclaimed water should be developed on the basis of elimination efficiency rather than concentration.

Biological treatment of reverse osmosis concentrate by microalgae cultivation and utilization of the resulting algal biomass

The reverse osmosis system is one of the most advanced membrane-based water treatment technologies that can convert a variety of wastewater into drinking and industrial water. However, it has major drawbacks, including the production of a large amount of reject stream that contains concentrated nutrients. Microalgae are well-known for their rapid growth and ability to consume excessive nutrients very efficiently under a variety of wastewater conditions. In this study, a locally isolated microalga, Chlorella sorokiniana KNUA071, was cultivated in reverse osmosis concentrate (ROC) obtained from a municipal wastewater reclamation facility that contained high levels of nutrients, ion, and metal elements. The aim was to investigate the potential of this microalga to be used in ROC treatments and the related applications of its biomass. Results showed that the C. sorokiniana KNUA071 could successfully remove 91.9% of total nitrogen (TN), 97% of total phosphorus, 98% of Mn, 100% of Al, 64% of Zn, 62% of Co, and 50% of Ni within 8 days, yielding a biomass productivity of 0.9 g dry weight L−1. This study also compared the results obtained from the Desmodesmus sp. KNUA024, which was used in the treatment of primary settled wastewater (PS) in our previously research, and was found to remove only 53.5% of TN in 8 days. C. sorokiniana KNUA071 biomass cultivated in the ROC had ~13.3% of lipid content while its biomass grown in the PS had ~28.2% of lipid content. The lipid contents of Desmodesmus sp. KNUA024 grown in the ROC and PS were ~29.3% and ~27.1%, respectively. Our findings suggest that microalgal cultivation could be employed as an effective strategy to remove nutrients and metals from ROC and at the same time produce biofuel from the lipids accumulated in the algal biomass.

Effect of ultraviolet disinfection on the fouling of reverse osmosis membranes for municipal wastewater reclamation

Membrane fouling is a prominent problem that hinders the stable and efficient operation of the reverse osmosis (RO) system for wastewater reclamation. Previous studies showed that chlorine disinfection, which was commonly used in industrial RO systems as pretreatment, could lead to significant change in microbial community structure and resulted in serious biofouling. In order to prevent biofouling during wastewater reclamation, the effect of ultraviolet (UV) disinfection on RO membrane fouling was investigated and the mechanism was also revealed in this study. With the disinfection pretreatment by UV of 20, 40 and 80 mJ/cm2, the bacteria in the feed water were inactivated significantly with a log reduction of 1.11, 2.55 and 3.61-log, respectively. However, RO membrane fouling aggravated with higher UV dosage. Especially, in the group with the UV dosage of 80 mJ/cm2, the normalized RO membrane flux decreased by 15% compared with the control group after 19-day operation. The morphology of the fouled RO membranes indicated serious biofouling in all groups. The analysis on the microbial amount of the foulants showed that the heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) and ATP content on the fouled RO membranes with and without UV disinfection were at the same level. However, the total organic carbon content of the foulants with the UV dosage of 40 and 80 mJ/cm2 was significantly higher than the control group, with higher content of proteins and polysaccharides as indicated by EEM and FTIR spectrum. Microbial community structure analysis showed that some typical UV-resistant bacteria were selected and remained on the RO membrane after disinfection with high UV dosage, including. These residual bacteria after disinfection with high UV dosage showed higher extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) secretion compared with those without UV disinfection, and thus aggravated RO membrane fouling. Thicker EPS could decrease the transmission of UV rays, and thus bacteria with higher EPS secretion might be selected after UV disinfection.

Comparison of Nanofiltration with Reverse Osmosis in Reclaiming Tertiary Treated Municipal Wastewater for Irrigation Purposes.

This study compares the performance of nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) for the reclamation of ultrafiltered municipal wastewater for irrigation of food crops. RO and NF technologies were evaluated at different applied pressures; the performance of each technology was evaluated in terms of water flux, recovery rate, specific energy consumption and quality of permeate. It was found that the permeate from the reverse osmosis (RO) process complied with Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) standards at pressures applied between 10 and 18 bar. At an applied pressure of 20 bar, the permeate quality did not comply with irrigation water standards in terms of chloride, sodium and calcium concentration. It was found that nanofiltration process was not suitable for the reclamation of wastewater as the concentration of chloride, sodium and calcium exceeded the allowable limits at all applied pressures. In the reverse osmosis process, the highest recovery rate was 36%, which was achieved at a pressure of 16 bar. The specific energy consumption at this applied pressure was 0.56 kWh/m3. The lowest specific energy of 0.46 kWh/m3 was achieved at an applied pressure of 12 bar with a water recovery rate of 32.7%.

Municipal wastewater reclamation and reuse using membrane-based technologies: a review

Municipal wastewater reclamation and reuse using membrane-based technologies: a review