Multitasking Index Research Articles

Media Multitasking Scores and Media Use Hours: A Comparison Across the Standard Stroop Task and an Emotional Stroop Task

ABSTRACT Heavier media multitasking and media use have been linked to poorer inhibitory control. This study examined the association between media multitasking and media use on performance in the standard and Emotional Stroop tasks. Participants completed the Media Multitasking Index and the two Stroop tasks. Depression, anxiety, and stress were measured to control for the effect of mood on Stroop performance. Within the standard Stroop task, after controlling for affect, higher media multitasking scores and media use hours showed a trend toward shorter overall RTs. For the emotional Stroop task, after controlling for affect, more media use hours were associated with shorter overall RTs and higher media multitasking scores were associated with more overall errors. While this may suggest an association between greater media engagement and more efficient task performance (or a processing speed advantage), the effect sizes were small. These results emphasize the importance of controlling for participant affect to minimize a potential confound when examining the association between media multitasking and inhibitory control. The results also indicate that measuring both media multitasking and media use hours will assist in further clarifying the relationship between media multitasking and cognition.

Frequent media multitasking is not associated with better cognitive flexibility

ABSTRACT Media multitasking refers to utilising multiple media simultaneously or the rapid swapping between media. This study examined the link between media multitasking and cognitive flexibility. Participants completed a version of the Media Multitasking Index (MMI) (Ophir, E., Nass, C., & Wagner, A. D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(37), 15583–15587) and performance on the Category and Figural Fluency tasks and Remote Associates Test was compared for light (LMM), intermediate (IMM) and heavy (HMM) media multitaskers. To reconcile the inconsistencies regarding media multitasking and cognitive flexibility within the literature, participants were allocated to LMM, IMM and HMM using one standard deviation above/below the mean, quartile, tertile and top-bottom 10% grouping criteria. Regardless of the grouping criteria, there was no difference between LMM, IMM and HMM performance for any cognitive flexibility measure. As a continuous variable, MMI scores did not predict performance on any task. These results are consistent with other studies reporting no link between media multitasking and cognitive flexibility.

A novel approach: Simulating multiple simultaneous encounters to assess multitasking ability in emergency medicine.

Study objectiveThe purpose of this feasibility study is to develop and validate a new assessment tool and scoring system for multitasking competency for physicians in-training in a timed simulated setting. The multitasking competency includes ability to appropriately prioritize and implement tasks for different patients who present simultaneously.MethodsWe designed three single task stations with different levels of difficulty and priority. These skill stations were then combined to create a multitasking simulation scenario. Skill checklists and the global rating scale were utilized to assess the participants’ performance. A multitasking score, multitasking index, and priority score were developed to measure the multitasking ability of participants.ResultsThirty-three first-year postgraduate physicians were recruited for this prospective study. The total performance scores were significantly higher for the single-tasking stations than for the multitasking scenario. In terms of the time needed to complete the tasks, the participants spent more time on the multitasking scenario than on the single-tasking scenario. There were significant correlations between the global rating scale and the multitasking score (rho = 0.693, p < 0.001) and between the global rating scale and the multitasking index (rho = 0.515, p < 0.001). The multitasking score, multitasking index, and priority score did not have any significant correlations with the total single-tasking score.ConclusionWe demonstrated that the use of a simulated multitasking scenario could be an effective method of assessing multitasking ability and allow assessors to offer better quality feedback.

Decision-making, cognitive functions, impulsivity, and media multitasking expectancies in high versus low media multitaskers

In several studies, individuals who reported to frequently multitask with different media displayed reduced cognitive performance, for example in fluid intelligence and executive functioning. These cognitive functions are relevant for making advantageous decisions under both objective risk (requiring reflection and strategical planning) and ambiguous risk (requiring learning from feedback). Thus, compared to low media multitaskers (LMMs), high media multitaskers (HMMs) may perform worse in both types of decision situations. The current study investigated HMMs and LMMs in a laboratory setting with the Game of Dice Task (GDT; objective risk), the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; ambiguous risk), various tests quantifying cognitive functions (logical reasoning, working memory, information processing, general executive functions), and self-report measures of impulsivity, media multitasking expectancies, and problematic Internet use. From 182 participants, 25 HMMs and 19 LMMs were identified using the Media Multitasking Index. Results show that HMMs compared to LMMs performed weaker on the IGT but not on the GDT. Furthermore, HMMs had slightly decreased performance in tests of logical reasoning and working memory capacity. HMMs tended to increased information processing speed but this difference was not significant. Furthermore, HMMs have more positive expectancies regarding media multitasking and reported higher tendencies toward problematic Internet use. HMMs and LMMs did not differ significantly with respect to impulsivity and executive functions. The results give a first hint that HMMs may have difficulties in decision-making under ambiguous but not under objective risk. HMMs may be more prone to errors in tasks that require feedback processing. However, HMMs appear not to be impaired in aspects of long-term strategic decision-making.

Relationship between media multitasking and functional connectivity in the dorsal attention network

With the development of digital technology, media multitasking behaviour, which is using two or more media simultaneously, has become more commonplace. There are two opposing hypotheses of media multitasking with regard to its impact on attention. One hypothesis claims that media multitasking can strengthen attention control, and the other claims heavy media multitaskers are less able to focus on relevant tasks in the presence of distractors. A total of 103 healthy subjects took part in this study. We measured the Media Multitasking Index (MMI) and subjects performed the continuous performance test. Resting state and oddball task functional MRI were conducted to analyse functional connectivity in the dorsal attention network, and the degree centrality (DC) was calculated using graph theory analysis. We found that the DCs in the dorsal attention network were higher during resting state than during the oddball task. Furthermore, the DCs during the task were positively correlated with the MMI. These results indicated that the DC reduction from resting state to the oddball task in high media multitaskers was attenuated compared with low media multitaskers. This study not only reveals more about the neurophysiology of media multitasking, but could also indicate brain biomarkers of media multitasking behaviour.

Exploring the variability of media multitasking choice behaviour using a network approach

ABSTRACTMany researchers have used the Media Multitasking Index (MMI) for investigating media multitasking behaviour. While useful as a means to compare inter-individual multitasking levels, the MMI disregards the variability in media multitasking choice behaviour: certain media combinations are more likely to be selected than others, and these patterns might differ from one population to another. The aim of the present study was to examine media multitasking choices in different populations. For this means, we employed a social network approach to render MMI responses collected in eight different populations into networks. The networks showed that the level of media multitasking as measured by the network densities differed across populations, yet, the pattern of media multitasking behaviour was similar. Specifically, media combinations which involved texting/IMing, listening to music, browsing, and social media were prominent in most datasets. Overall the findings indicate that media multitasking behaviours might be confined within a smaller set of media activities. Accordingly, instead of assessing a large number of media combinations, future studies might consider focusing on a more limited set of media types.

Higher media multi-tasking activity is associated with smaller gray-matter density in the anterior cingulate cortex.

Media multitasking, or the concurrent consumption of multiple media forms, is increasingly prevalent in today’s society and has been associated with negative psychosocial and cognitive impacts. Individuals who engage in heavier media-multitasking are found to perform worse on cognitive control tasks and exhibit more socio-emotional difficulties. However, the neural processes associated with media multi-tasking remain unexplored. The present study investigated relationships between media multitasking activity and brain structure. Research has demonstrated that brain structure can be altered upon prolonged exposure to novel environments and experience. Thus, we expected differential engagements in media multitasking to correlate with brain structure variability. This was confirmed via Voxel-Based Morphometry (VBM) analyses: Individuals with higher Media Multitasking Index (MMI) scores had smaller gray matter density in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Functional connectivity between this ACC region and the precuneus was negatively associated with MMI. Our findings suggest a possible structural correlate for the observed decreased cognitive control performance and socio-emotional regulation in heavy media-multitaskers. While the cross-sectional nature of our study does not allow us to specify the direction of causality, our results brought to light novel associations between individual media multitasking behaviors and ACC structure differences.

Individual Differences in Media Multitasking and Inattentional Blindness

Previous research on media multitasking suggests that individuals who regularly multitask are more susceptible to interference from task irrelevant stimuli than individuals who rarely multitask (Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009, PNAS). This finding is consistent with the idea that frequent multitaskers are more likely to notice task-irrelevant stimuli than infrequent multitaskers. However, past research did not measure awareness of the task-irrelevant stimuli. The present study investigated the relationship between media multitasking and inattentional blindness (IB), which occurs when individuals fail to notice task-irrelevant, unexpected stimuli while performing an attentionally demanding cover task. As in past research, the Media Multitasking Index (MMI; Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009) was used to classify participants (n = 95) as high media multitaskers (more than 1 SD above the sample's mean MMI score, n = 14) or low media multitaskers (less than 1 SD below the sample's mean MMI score, n = 12). In addition, participants in the middle of the MMI distribution were placed into middle-low (between -1 and 0 SDs from mean, n = 41) and middle-high (between 0 and 1 SDs from mean, n = 28) groups. Mack and Rock's (1998) paradigm was used to measure IB. Participants completed four cover task trials that involved making judgments about a cross that was briefly presented in the periphery. On the fifth trial, an unexpected stimulus was presented at fixation at the same time as the cross, and detection of this stimulus was used as a measure of IB. Detection rates were 57% for the high group, 43% for the middle-high group, 41% for the middle-low group, and 50% for the low group. There was no statistical association between MMI group and detection, p > .05. These results suggest that self-reported media multitasking is not strongly related to inattentional blindness. Meeting abstract presented at VSS 2014

Media multitasking predicts unitary versus splitting visual focal attention

Research evidence now suggests that the deployment of multiple attentional foci in noncontiguous locations (i.e., splitting visual focal attention) is possible under some circumstances. However, the exact circumstances under which focal attention might ‘split’ have not been well understood. Here, we examined the possibility that ecological differences arising from our increasingly media-saturated environment result in individual differences in the capacity to demonstrate splitting focal attention. The Media Multitasking Index (MMI) was used to assess the extent to which participants engaged in media multitasking—the consumption of more than one stream of media content at the same time. Capacity to split attention was assessed with a paradigm previously employed by McCormick, Klein, and Johnston. The present data suggest a significant relationship between the behavioural preference for consuming multiple media forms simultaneously and the capacity to employ a split mode of attention. Specifically, High-MMI participants (who tend to consume multiple visual media forms simultaneously) adopted a splitting mode of visual attention, whereas Low-MMI participants (who tend to consume fewer visual media forms simultaneously) adopted a unitary mode of attention. These data advanced our understanding of the circumstances under which visual focal attention might split. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Adolescents Living the 24/7 Lifestyle: Effects of Caffeine and Technology on Sleep Duration and Daytime Functioning

Adolescents may not receive the sleep they need. New media technology and new, popular energy drinks may be implicated in sleep deficits. In this pilot study we quantified nighttime technology use and caffeine consumption to determine effects on sleep duration and daytime behaviors in adolescents. We hypothesized that with increased technology use, adolescents increase caffeine consumption, resulting in insufficient sleep duration. Subjects were recruited from a pediatric office in a proximal suburb of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Inclusion criteria for this study were middle and high school subjects aged 12 to 18 years old. The questionnaire, Adolescent Sleep, Caffeine Intake, and Technology Use, was developed by the investigators to measure adolescents' intake of caffeinated drinks, use of nighttime media-related technology, and sleep behaviors. Descriptive statistics characterized the subjects, their caffeine and technology use, and sleep variables. Regression models assessed the relationships between caffeine, technology use, and sleep variables, having adjusted for age, race, gender, and BMI. Sleep was significantly related to the multitasking index. Teenagers getting 8 to 10 hours of sleep on school nights tended to have 1.5- to 2-fold lower multitasking indices compared with those getting less sleep. Thirty-three percent of the teenagers reported falling asleep during school. Caffeine consumption tended to be 76% higher by those who fell asleep. The log-transformed multitasking index was significantly related to falling asleep during school and with difficulties falling asleep on weeknights. Many adolescents used multiple forms of technology late into the night and concurrently consumed caffeinated beverages. Subsequently, their ability to stay alert and fully functional throughout the day was impaired by excessive daytime sleepiness. Future studies should measure more than television hours when evaluating the impact of nighttime activities on sleep patterns in adolescents.