Multiple-use Marine Protected Areas Research Articles

Analyzing China’s Marine Park Management System Under the Reform of National Institutions

Marine parks (MPs), a kind of multiple-use marine protected area (MPA), have been crucial in coordinating the relationship between marine ecosystem conservation and resource utilization, facilitating coastal sustainable development. However, an effective and sustainable approach to MP management in China is yet to be fully developed. In 2018, the Chinese government inaugurated the 2018 Reform to merge its MPAs and terrestrial protected areas into a new natural protected area (NPA) system under the unified management by the Ministry of Natural Resources. Therefore, it is an opportune moment to summarize management experience and propose new prospects for improving the management of MPs in China. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive review of China’s progress on its MPs and evaluated the management effectiveness, after which we identified the key issues hindering the effective conservation and management of China’s MPs. To address these challenges, we propose targeted strategic recommendations by examining new policy directives relating to the 2018 Reform. The results of this study have valuable theoretical and practical implications for China’s MP management. Furthermore, our findings may provide a potential empirical reference for related management research in other MPs, especially in developing countries.

A diverse portfolio of marine protected areas can better advance global conservation and equity

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are widely used for ocean conservation, yet the relative impacts of various types of MPAs are poorly understood. We estimated impacts on fish biomass from no-take and multiple-use (fished) MPAs, employing a rigorous matched counterfactual design with a global dataset of >14,000 surveys in and around 216 MPAs. Both no-take and multiple-use MPAs generated positive conservation outcomes relative to no protection (58.2% and 12.6% fish biomass increases, respectively), with smaller estimated differences between the two MPA types when controlling for additional confounding factors (8.3% increase). Relative performance depended on context and management: no-take MPAs performed better in areas of high human pressure but similar to multiple-use in remote locations. Multiple-use MPA performance was low in high-pressure areas but improved significantly with better management, producing similar outcomes to no-take MPAs when adequately staffed and appropriate use regulations were applied. For priority conservation areas where no-take restrictions are not possible or ethical, our findings show that a portfolio of well-designed and well-managed multiple-use MPAs represents a viable and potentially equitable pathway to advance local and global conservation.

Two decades of research on ocean multi-use: achievements, challenges and the need for transdisciplinarity

This paper offers a comprehensive, analytical, and critically informed overview of the current state of ocean multi-use research. It delves into the origins, trajectory, and driving forces behind this emerging research field, all within the broader context of investigations addressing the management of increasingly diverse and intensifying activities at sea. The Bibliometrix R package is employed to analyze the social, geographical, and conceptual dimensions of multi-use scientific production. The results obtained are then compared to a larger corpus of publications focusing on both multiple-use Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Marine Spatial Planning (MSP). Finally, the paper addresses research gaps, with a particular emphasis on the transdisciplinary challenges associated with translating this new marine policy concept into practical implementation and extending its application beyond European seas.

Project of artisanal fisheries management in the proposed marine protected area of Jbel Moussa (Morocco)

Artisanal fisheries are the subject of a growing interest in the conservation community. It is considered as a less harmful extractive activity in many multiple-use marine protected areas (MPAs)s. However, only a few of these MPAs have been able to successfully combine their nature conservation objectives with those of managing artisanal fisheries in a sustainable manner. In many cases, the artisanal fishing activity and the communities related to it have been barely involved in the management of MPAs, which has led to sometimes tense situations between fishermen and MPA managers. This work takes the example of the future marine protected area "Jbel Moussa", located in northern Morocco just off the Strait of Gibraltar, where artisanal fishing is one of the main local activities. A survey was conducted between July and November 2022 and targeted the future stakeholders of the marine protected area. Knowing already the point of view of the artisanal fishermen of Jbel Moussa from previous works, this survey has served to clarify the perspective of the future managers of the protected area, in order to take stock of all that is planned in terms of the general management of the site and artisanal fisheries, but also to determine if there is a real communication between each stakeholder category. After analysis, the results of the survey showed some shortcomings in communication between the different categories of actors interviewed, but also some divergence of opinions between the managers of the future protected area and the artisanal fishermen operating there. However, it was revealed that several projects addressing, in particular, some of the aspects studied in this work, are being carried out at the site and will undoubtedly allow the problems observed to be taken into account for a better future management of the MPA.

Co-management of marine protected areas: Challenges and lessons from the most urbanized coastline of the South Western Atlantic

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are powerful instruments to conserve biodiversity and ecosystems, if supported by an effective management structure. In Brazil, no-take and multiple-use MPAs have advisory councils that allow co-management as an important strategy to deal with conservation challenges, mainly in urbanized coastal areas. However, the profile of members and their perceptions regarding advisory council challenges remain poorly known. Here, we assessed the advisory management councils of the largest network of MPAs in the South Western Atlantic, situated next to one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. Seven MPA advisory councils were initially characterized through consultation with the MPA managers, followed by interviews with each advisory council member. We found that advisory council members were mostly agents of the local government, university scientists, members of local associations, and employees of non-governmental organizations. Compared with no-take MPAs, multiple-use MPAs tended to have greater diversity of member profiles in terms of institutional affiliation, gender, training level and age group. Although the majority of respondents considered the advisory councils an effective management tool, almost 30% of the interviewees did not recognize this mechanism as efficient, and the perceived capacity for advisory councils to respond to challenges was lower in no-take MPAs. This perception was attributed to a lack of complete actor inclusivity and the low decision-making power of advisory councils. There was a general agreement that no-take MPA advisory councils in particular are not achieving their sustainability goals and have progressed less than multiple-use MPAs in terms of co-management. To overcome this, we provide a series of recommendations to improve stakeholder participation and co-management of MPA operation.

Marine protected areas for resilience and economic development

In this research, we attempt to give a comparative analysis of the space allocation of multiple-use marine protected areas (MPAs) including but not limited to the introduction of aquaculture in the area. Specifically, we consider the case where there is a need to develop MPAs for the conservation of the environment and ecological diversity. There is also a prevailing call for the establishment of aquaculture activities within the area to meet societal demands. Although aquaculture has negative externalities on MPAs, it helps to reduce the pressure on the capture fishery and increases the supply of fish. We develop a deterministic bioeconomic model that describes the transition dynamics and interrelationships of the systems. We find an optimal aquaculture size relative to the optimal size of MPAs that maximizes the overall economic and ecological benefits. Using numerical methods we determine the trajectory of optimal solutions, the recovery rate of the stocks in and outside the MPAs, and the expansion rate of the aquaculture. Sensitivity analysis was also performed to see the effect of a change in the parameters on the optimal solutions. The numerical results show that MPAs are resilient after the implementation of aquaculture. Moreover, the effectiveness of the optimized management system mainly depends on the cooperative planning between the capture fishery and aquaculture managers.

Local practice of marine protected areas legislation in China: The case of Zhoushan

Recognizing the ever-increasing importance of laws in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) construction and management, more and more countries have begun to seriously make MPA laws, from national to local. In China, as a new Protected Areas system with national parks as the mainstay is adopted, the establishment of a MPA legal system is put on the agenda. As the first and only local legislation for multiple-use MPAs in China, the Regulation on Management of Zhoushan National Special MPAs, together with three complementary Measures, has been implemented since 2017 and went through an amendment in 2021, thereby providing a rare opportunity to explore how the special characteristics of marine ecosystem might interact with the management and enforcement mechanisms. Based on the first-hand data collected from the process of post-legislative assessment and provision amendment, this article presents a thorough analysis of this local legislation and its implementation from seven aspects: managing agencies, division of responsibilities, law enforcement capabilities, subsistence and conservation, public participation, supporting infrastructure and innovation. In conclusion, this article offers important lessons for improving MPA governance through local legislation. They are (1) a more flexible model of “a basic law plus special laws” might better strengthen the managing agencies of MPAs by assigning them appropriate responsibilities and resources; (2) MPA planning should respect local subsistence and development so as to get citizens involved in marine conservation; (3) a successful innovation in local legislation must take enforceability, especially the supporting infrastructure in place, into consideration.

Small but strong: Socioeconomic and ecological resilience of a small European fishing community affected by a submarine volcanic eruption

Small-scale coastal fishing communities are facing many new challenges, such as rapid ecological changes created by anthropogenic and natural events like earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. This paper explores how a coastal population has responded to such an event and highlights the diverse coping strategies used to tackle it. This research was conducted on the island of El Hierro (Spain), where a submarine volcanic eruption occurred in 2011, affecting a multiple-use Marine Protected Area (MPA) and the nearby fishing community of La Restinga. Our study illustrates how the local population coped with this situation by combining multiple monetary and non-monetary activities (e.g., informal exchanges) as well as the role of institutions in increasing local resilience by supporting fishers' demands and allowing their participation in the decision-making process in the immediate wake of a catastrophic event. Local families also exploited various natural resources in and near the MPA, thus ensuring access to crucial marine resources and continued recreational/cultural services. The results suggest that collective action played a key role in the recovery process after the eruption, creating some advantages for different local groups despite the hazardous nature of the event.

Effectiveness of Large-Scale Marine Protected Areas in the Atlantic Ocean for Reducing Fishing Activities

The implementation of large-scale marine protected areas (MPAs) depends upon scarce conservation resources, while their effects on biodiversity conservation are rarely assessed to date. Quantitative evaluations are necessary to assess the effectiveness of large-scale MPAs in enhancing ecosystem resilience, protecting biodiversity, and mitigating expanding threats. In this study, the effectiveness of large-scale MPAs, which are remotely managed and in offshore areas of the southwestern Atlantic Ocean (Brazil), was assessed concerning the occurrence of fishing activities within their boundaries before and after their implementation. Two sets of MPAs surrounding the São Pedro and São Paulo archipelago (SPSP) and the Trindade-Martin Vaz Islands (TMV) were established in early 2018, each comprising one no-take (i.e., fully-protected) and one multiple-use (i.e., partially-protected) area. For this assessment, I used satellite detections of Vessel Monitoring System transmission to quantify the fishing pressure (i.e., “likely fishing days”) from commercial fisheries spanning 5 years (2015–2019). I then derived three metrics – fishing area, intensity, and density – to compare fishing activity within each MPA and year. The results showed that the effectiveness of the multiple-use MPAs was variable and contrasting, with SPSP experiencing a reduction in the fishing intensity and area and TMV experiencing an increase in both measures. An inverted pattern was evident for the no-take MPAs: while the one in the SPSP region experienced an increase in the fishing density after its establishment following a squeeze factor, the no-take MPA in the TMV region observed a decrease in the fishing density when comparing years before and after MPA implementation. These outputs can support managers in planning the implementation of further conservation strategies, such as monitoring and enforcement plans, and the analyses here also contribute to enhancing our understanding on the implications and challenges of adopting large-scale MPAs in the offshore environment as a high-profile strategy of ocean conservation.

The complex relationships between marine protected areas and marine spatial planning: Towards an analytical framework

Systems of marine spatial planning (MSP) are now being introduced in many countries, with the intention of more rational arrangement of maritime uses and interests. It would be expected that marine conservation, especially the designation of marine protected areas (MPAs), would be incorporated into MSP. In practice, however, MSP and MPA designation are often taking place in parallel to each other, with relatively little integration between them, partly because of marine conservation's longer history and established institutional frameworks which cannot be simply subsumed into MSP processes. There are, nonetheless, a series of options available by which the two sets of process could be more closely linked. These options can be conceptualised temporally, by, for example, MSP improving the status of pre-existing MPAs, or spatially, by, for example, facilitating the creation of multiple-use MPAs. These difficulties and possibilities are illustrated through two national European experiences.

Fishery management in a marine protected area with compliance gaps: Socio-economic and biological insights as a first step on the path of sustainability

Overfishing is one of the main impacts on the marine environment and multiple-use Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) could be a useful tool to conserve biodiversity and promote sustainable resource exploitation. However, ensuring a high level of protection on the ground is a difficult task. This work contributes to the analysis of the causes at the root of MPAs' ineffectiveness by examining the management of Paracentrotus lividus fishery in an Italian MPA, employing a multidisciplinary approach built on biological and socio-economic competences. This sea urchin species has a determinant ecological role in structuring infralittoral benthic assemblages and is the most exploited echinoid in Europe. From 2010 to 2018, underwater sampling was conducted over 39 monitoring sites to define P. lividus spatial and temporal trends. Declared catches and semi-structured interviews with local stakeholders were used to define the socio-economical context, underline existing conflicts among them, as well as to trace the historical evolution of sea urchin fishery. The results show that the management of sea urchin fishery is not sustainable, primarily because of the stakeholders’ non-compliance with the rules. P. lividus stock is progressively declining (−73% in 9 years), showing no difference between MPA (0.5 ± 0.15 ind./m2) and control sites (0.3 ± 0.04 ind./m2). Moreover, fishermen dominate the social arena while scientists, civil society and local press have little relevance. Additionally, the untruthfulness of catch declarations was proved, the IUU fishery is relevant and the black market is hiding the actual economic value. This work offers management solutions that may be useful in other areas that show similar compliance issues.

The effects of marine protected areas on ecosystem recovery and fisheries using a comparative modelling approach

Abstract The overexploitation of many marine resources and ecosystems calls for the development and implementation of measures to support their recovery and conservation. The potential contributions to support fisheries and ecosystem recovery were assessed at the local level of the three multiple‐use marine protected areas (MPAs) of Cerbère‐Banyuls, Medes Islands, and Cap de Creus, located in the north‐western Mediterranean Sea. For each MPA, a food‐web model accounting for each protection level (PL) was developed: the fully protected area (FPA), the partially protected area (PPA) and the unprotected area (UPA) surrounding the MPA. Using the resulting nine food‐web models, the ecosystem structure and functioning of each PL were compared and characterized, differences and similarities within and among the three MPAs were assessed, and ecosystem response to full protection was evaluated for the three MPAs. Differences in terms of ecosystem structure and functioning were found among PLs. Overall, FPAs presented the most positive effect of protection in terms of ecosystem structure and functioning, followed by PPAs. However, the effects of protection on neighbouring UPAs were hardly noticeable. Similarities between Cerbère‐Banyuls and Medes Islands MPAs were observed, while Cap de Creus MPA showed the least benefits from protection overall. These results are likely to be due to similarities in the configuration of the protected areas, the levels of enforcement and compliance, and the impact of recreational and small‐scale fisheries allowed in the PPAs and UPAs. This study illustrates that well‐enforced Mediterranean MPAs, even when small, can yield local positive impacts on the structure and functioning of marine ecosystems that can contribute to support local fisheries.

Extending full protection inside existing marine protected areas, or reducing fishing effort outside, can reconcile conservation and fisheries goals

Abstract Most fish stocks world‐wide are fished at maximum sustainable yield (MSY) or overfished, as many fisheries management strategies have failed to achieve sustainable fishing. Identifying effective fisheries management strategies has now become urgent. Here, we developed a spatially explicit metapopulation model accounting for population connectivity in the north‐western Mediterranean Sea, and parameterized it for three ecologically and economically important coastal fish species: the white seabream Diplodus sargus, the two‐banded seabream Diplodus vulgaris and the dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus. We used the model to assess how stock biomass and catches respond to changes in fishing mortality rate (F) and in the size of fully protected areas within the existing system of multiple‐use marine protected areas (MPAs). For each species, we estimated MSY and the corresponding values of stock biomass (BMSY) and fishing mortality rate (FMSY), providing crucial reference points for the assessment of fisheries management. Diplodus sargus is currently in low overfishing, while D. vulgaris and E. marginatus are in high overfishing. Stock recovery to BMSY for the last two species requires a reduction of current F around 50%. This would guarantee an increase in both stock biomass (around 50% and 75% for D. vulgaris and E. marginatus respectively) and catch (around 15% and 30%) after a transient time of ~15–30 years. Alternatively, doubling the size of fully protected areas over fishable areas within the existing network of MPAs would lead to positive conservation effects for all three species without substantially affecting the overall productivity of the fishery and the total economic value of the catch. Synthesis and applications. We provide the first assessment of stock status for three coastal species in the north‐western Mediterranean and evaluate the ecological and fisheries outcomes of different management strategies. Extending full protection inside existing multiple‐use marine protected areas or reducing fishing effort outside can deliver both conservation and fisheries benefits.

China's marine protected area system: Evolution, challenges, and new prospects

China has been working for nearly four decades to establish marine protected areas (MPAs). After the 2018 institutional reform, all the protected areas were integrated into a unified management by the Ministry of Natural Resources. Therefore, it is urgent to summarize management experiences and put forward new management countermeasures. In this study, we analyzed the development process of China's MPAs and show that, after a long-term increase, both number and area of newly built MPAs shrank after 2008. No-take marine nature reserves used to largely contribute to the MPA network. However, because of the shortage of land for economic development, willingness to build nature reserves in coastal areas, as opposed to reclamation and other marine exploitations, was relatively low nationwide in the last decade. Thus, marine special protected areas, which were smaller and with multiple-use strategies, became more important. Top-down decision-making process, decentralization, and unbalanced spatial distribution are the main challenges hampering an effective MPA network. In China, a unified jurisdiction of MPAs was implemented after institutional reform, which made a new top-level design possible. Appropriate categorization consisting of fully protected and multiple-use MPAs, a balanced system integrating top-down and bottom-up approaches, and a flexible and adaptive MPA network are suggested to achieve sustainable development of China's MPAs.

Governance strategies for a successful marine protected area – The case of Torre Guaceto

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are an essential tool for the protection and recovery of marine ecosystems. Most Mediterranean MPAs are multiple-use, i.e., they include a small no-take area and a buffer zone where extractive and non-extractive economic activities are allowed, mostly under restricted conditions. Multiple-use MPAs are characterised by specific governance challenges, which differ from those of no-take ones. They need to find a compromise between conservation goals and the interests of different categories of stakeholders, and in particular the fishery and tourism sectors – whose support and buy-in are essential to ensure compliance. For this reason, it is important to analyse the governance strategy of multiple-use MPAs that are successful both from an environmental and a socio-economic point of view. To contribute to this debate I herein explore the governance strategy of the Torre Guaceto MPA in south-east Italy, a success story that shows how, even in a difficult socio-economic context and with limited public funding, a MPA can lead to the recovery of ecosystems while providing economic benefits to the tourism and fishery sectors. Drawing from a focus group with fishermen and in-depth semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders from the managing Consortium, the tourist and agriculture sectors and two local residents, I argue that the reason for the success of the Torre Guaceto MPA can be found in the use of multiple economic and non-economic incentives, which catalyse synergies among sectors, and in the strong leadership by two local, well-respected, committed and pro-active leaders.

Human and climatic drivers affect spatial fishing patterns in a multiple-use marine protected area: The Galapagos Marine Reserve.

Assessments of the effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs) usually assume that fishing patterns change exclusively due to the implementation of an MPA. This assumption increases the risk of erroneous conclusions in assessing marine zoning, and consequently counter-productive management actions. Accordingly, it is important to understand how fishers respond to a combination of the implementation of no-take zones, and various climatic and human drivers of change. Those adaptive responses could influence the interpretation of assessment of no-take zone effectiveness, yet few studies have examined these aspects. Indeed, such analysis is often unfeasible in developing countries, due to the dominance of data-poor fisheries, which precludes full examination of the social-ecological outcomes of MPAs. In the Galapagos Marine Reserve (Ecuador), however, the availability of long-term spatially explicit fishery monitoring data (1997-2011) for the spiny lobster fishery allows such an analysis. Accordingly, we evaluated how the spatiotemporal allocation of fishing effort in this multiple-use MPA was affected by the interaction of diverse climatic and human drivers, before and after implementation of no-take zones. Geographic information system modelling techniques were used in combination with boosted regression models to identify how these drivers influenced fishers' behavior. Our results show that the boom-and-bust exploitation of the sea cucumber fishery and the global financial crisis 2007-09, rather than no-take zone implementation, were the most important drivers affecting the distribution of fishing effort across the archipelago. Both drivers triggered substantial macro-scale changes in fishing effort dynamics, which in turn altered the micro-scale dynamics of fishing patterns. Fishers' adaptive responses were identified, and their management implications analyzed. This leads to recommendations for more effective marine and fishery management in the Galapagos, based on improved assessment of the effectiveness of no-take zones.

Social and economic sustainability of multiple-use marine protected areas in Spain: A mixed methods, multi-scale study

Social perception is key to the success of biodiversity conservation policies. A range of socioeconomic guilds can be affected by marine conservation. Among them, fishers are the ones most likely affected and affecting marine protected areas (MPAs). Here, we assessed the perceptions on the sustainability of a type of multiple-use MPA, Fishing Reserves (FRs), by a broad spectrum of national (n = 16) and local (n = 14) stakeholder organisations pertaining to six socioeconomic sectors via two online surveys in Spain. We compared organisational perception by stakeholder organisations, and specifically by the fishing guild, with official fishing statistics for six FRs between 1998 and 2016 using a Before-After-Impact (BAI) research design. Spanish FRs were regarded as sustainable marine management tools by most marine and coastal stakeholders, with environmental effects perceived to be more positive than social and economic ones, respectively. However, primary sector organisations stated null or negative effect of FR designation on their activities, although official statistics showed a moderate to large increase in a number of professional fishing-related variables, including number of boats and crews, after designation of most FRs. Spatial scale did not affect stakeholder perception of local socioeconomic effects of FRs, although some relevant local socioeconomic variables that were thought to vary most after FR designation differed across scales. Some suggested managerial improvements for increased socioeconomic sustainability of Spanish FRs by the professional fishing guild included: greater stakeholder engagement in FR designation and operation, more flexible fishing regulations and stricter control of recreational fishing.

Are multiple-use marine protected areas meeting fishers’ proposals? Strengths and constraints in fisheries’ management in Brazil

Although still controversial among some fisheries management stakeholders, marine protected areas (MPAs) are used worldwide to address fisheries crises. This study focused on the perspectives of fishers in evaluating the effectiveness of an MPA to address their management propositions. The study analysed the drafting and implementation of a multiple-use MPA management plan in the southern coast of Brazil. It evaluated the outcomes in fulfilling the small-scale fishers' proposals, raised and collectively agreed to in a participatory drafting process. Four years after the release of the MPA management plan half of the fishers' proposals were fulfilled. Most of the fishers' fulfilled proposals were related to regulations within the MPA and to strategies to improve their political representativeness, while the majority of the proposals on fishing licensing and on public policies to foster the activity have not yet been achieved. Scale mismatches, authority limitations, and options for innovative institutional arrangements are discussed here as key elements of the results. Additionally, fishers and managers agreed on the increased management performance and learning opportunities created through the participatory process of drafting the management plan, enabling an environment for fulfilling the proposals over the medium and long terms.

Soft-bottom fishes and spatial protection: findings from a temperate marine protected area.

Numerous studies over the last decades have focused on marine protected areas (MPAs) and their effects on fish communities. However, there is a knowledge gap regarding how species that live associated with soft-substrates (e.g., sand, mud) respond to spatial protection. We analyzed abundance, biomass and total lengths of the soft-bottom fishes in a multiple-use MPA in the north-eastern Atlantic, the Luiz Saldanha Marine Park (Portugal), during and after the implementation of its management plan. Data were collected by experimental fishing in areas with three different levels of protection, during the implementation period and for three years after full implementation of the MPA. Univariate analysis detected significant biomass increases between the two periods. Fish assemblages were mainly structured by depth and substrate, followed by protection level. Community composition analyses revealed significant differences between protection levels and between the two periods. Species exhibited a broad variation in their response to protection, and we hypothesize that factors such as species habitat preferences, body size and late maturity might be underlying determinants. Overall, this study provides some evidence of protection effectiveness in soft-bottom fish communities, supported by the significant increase in biomass in the protected areas and the positive trends of some species.

How good is your marine protected area at curbing threats?

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are key tools to mitigate human impacts in coastal environments, promoting sustainable activities to conserve biodiversity. The designation of MPAs alone may not result in the lessening of some human threats, which is highly dependent on management goals and the related specific regulations that are adopted. Here, we develop and operationalize a local threat assessment framework. We develop indices to quantify the effectiveness of MPAs (or individual zones within MPAs in the case of multiple-use MPAs) in reducing anthropogenic extractive and non-extractive threats operating at local scale, focusing specifically on threats that can be managed through MPAs. We apply this framework in 15 Mediterranean MPAs to assess their threat reduction capacity. We show that fully protected areas effectively eliminate extractive activities, whereas the intensity of artisanal and recreational fishing within partially protected areas, paradoxically, is higher than that found outside MPAs, questioning their ability at reaching conservation targets. In addition, both fully and partially protected areas attract non-extractive activities that are potential threats. Overall, only three of the 15 MPAs had lower intensities for the entire set of eight threats considered, in respect to adjacent control unprotected areas. Understanding the intensity and occurrence of human threats operating at the local scale inside and around MPAs is important for assessing MPAs effectiveness in achieving the goals they have been designed for, informing management strategies, and prioritizing specific actions.