Multiple-schedule Arrangements Research Articles

Assessment and treatment of multiply maintained problem behavior dependent on the time of day

ABSTRACT Purpose The current study evaluated treatments derived from two functional analyses (FA) for a 7-year-old student with autism. Method The FA assessment was conducted at different times of the day and each revealed different functions in the morning and the afternoon. Results The morning FA suggested that problem behavior was maintained by positive reinforcement in the form of attention, whereas the afternoon FA showed that problem behavior was maintained by both positive reinforcement in the form of attention and negative reinforcement in the form of escape from task demands. Discussion results of this study suggested that differential reinforcement for appropriate behavior in a multiple schedule arrangement effectively reduced multiply maintained problem behavior across the school day.

Implementing multiple schedules with naturally occurring stimuli via telehealth

AbstractFunctional communication training (FCT) is an effective intervention to decrease challenging behavior. However, the continuous reinforcement of mands commonly implemented within FCT is difficult to implement in natural settings. Schedule thinning using a multiple schedule arrangement addresses this barrier, yet most studies evaluating this approach have been conducted in clinical environments and using implementer‐arranged stimuli to signal reinforcer availability. The purposes of the current study are to (a) evaluate the effectiveness of caregiver‐implemented multiple schedules in the home setting with caregiver coaching via telehealth and (b) evaluate the effectiveness of transferring stimulus control from caregiver‐arranged to naturally occurring stimuli to signal reinforcer availability within a multiple schedule arrangement. The results indicated FCT was effective in reducing challenging behavior and increasing manding. For one participant, discriminated manding was established with caregiver‐arranged stimuli within 7 sessions and transferred to naturally occurring stimuli with a three‐step fading procedure across 33 sessions. For the other participant, discriminated manding was established with the caregiver‐arranged stimuli within 21 sessions and transferred to naturally occurring stimuli with a three‐step fading procedure across 23 sessions. Both caregivers implemented FCT and multiple schedules with fidelity. Given the preliminary nature of the results, more research is needed to determine if this strategy is effective and if there is a more efficient approach to teach discrimination of naturally occurring stimuli.

Effects of Spoken and Written Rules in a Multiple-Schedule Arrangement in Special Education Classes

Effects of Spoken and Written Rules in a Multiple-Schedule Arrangement in Special Education Classes

Grandparent-Implemented Interventions to Reduce Challenging Behavior of an Adult With Autism: A Pilot Telehealth Case Study

Adults with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often engage in challenging behavior that requires individualized intervention to remediate. However, access to high-quality services is limited for adults, leaving this population without necessary behavioral healthcare. This study addressed the needs of a 22-year-old man with ASD and intellectual disability (ID) who lived with his grandmother and engaged in tangibly maintained challenging behavior. The interventionist coached his grandmother via telehealth in the implementation of two behavior analytic interventions: signaled multiple schedule arrangement and a modified contingency contract. The effects of the interventions were evaluated using an alternating treatments design with baseline. While both interventions were effective at decreasing challenging behavior when compared to baseline, the signaled multiple schedule arrangement resulted in zero instances of challenging behavior. Both the participant and the grandparent completed post-intervention social validity assessments and reported overall positive satisfaction with the interventions. Practice recommendations are presented.

Multiple schedules with response interruption and redirection to reduce stereotypy in children with autism spectrum disorder: Generalization and social validity

Although response interruption and redirection (RIRD) and multiple schedule arrangements have sometimes been shown to be effective in reducing stereotypy for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), important questions remain about optimal methods for facilitating generalization and social validity. In the current study, we sought to extend the literature on stereotypy treatment and MSAs in several ways. First, we programmed for generalization by conducting sessions with two exemplars of two different categories of activities (i.e., school work, toy play) and assessing generalization with novel exemplars and activities and during the participant's typical instructional program. Second, we used RIRD instructions that were contextual models of appropriate behavior relevant to each activity. Third, during the free access component of the multiple schedule, we used a child's play tent as a first step toward teaching participants to engage in stereotypy during private free time. For all three participants with ASD, stereotypy decreased quickly and substantially, with reductions generalizing to novel activities and contexts. An extensive social validity assessment with board-certified behavior analysts indicated high social acceptability of the goals, procedures, and outcomes.

Comparing the effects of static and dynamic signals during multiple schedules

The extent to which multiple schedules are an effective schedule thinning method following functional communication training (FCT) relies on the control the schedule-correlated stimuli exert over behavior. Thus, the stimuli used to signal the schedule in place (e.g., reinforcement and extinction) in a multiple schedule arrangement require special attention. To date, the majority of the research on multiple schedules has evaluated the use of different arbitrary signals as schedule-correlated stimuli (e.g., poster boards). These signals are considered static as they lack movement. More recently, some studies have successfully used dynamic signals, which include movement or animation, within multiple schedule arrangements. However, the extent to which one type of signal may result in faster stimulus control over behavior has not been evaluated. Thus, the purpose of this study was to compare the use of static and dynamic signals as schedule-correlated stimuli in multiple schedules used within the context of FCT. Four children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder participated in the study. The results suggest that no differences in discriminated manding were observed for three out of four participants. Only dynamic signals resulted in discriminated manding for one participant.

On the Efficacy of and Preference for Signaling Extinction in a Multiple Schedule.

Previous basic research has shown that signaling the extinction component of a compound schedule can be aversive and nonpreferred. However, such discriminative stimuli are common when thinning schedules of reinforcement in practice, and they provide several advantages to clinicians. A limitation of previous applied studies on different arrangements of discriminative stimuli is that researchers have used identical stimuli to signal the availability of reinforcement across conditions that do and do not signal extinction, often doubling exposure to the stimulus signaling the availability of reinforcement. The present experiments corrected this limitation by comparing multiple-schedule arrangements that do and do not signal extinction when unique stimuli signal each component across conditions. Results from three participants indicated that both multiple-schedule arrangements were similarly efficacious when teaching the successive discrimination. However, response patterns differed when testing under a concurrent-operants arrangement, suggesting different patterns of preference across various multiple-schedule arrangements.

Evaluating skills correlated with discriminated responding in multiple schedule arrangements.

One potential solution for excessively high-rate functional communication responses (FCR) is to establish stimulus control of the FCR through a multiple schedule. However, several studies have demonstrated difficulty with establishing discriminated responding across multiple schedule components. The primary aim of the current study was to evaluate how participants' skills related to color discrimination may be related to the emergence of discriminated responding in a multiple schedule with colors as the schedule-correlated stimuli. Three secondary aims of the current study were to evaluate: a) varied multiple schedule arrangements, b) if topographically dissimilar stimuli facilitated the emergence of discriminated responding, and c) if employing different colored stimuli across multiple schedule arrangements reduced the likelihood that discriminated responding emerged simultaneously across varied arrangements. Nine participants' ability to match, select, tact, and respond intraverbally to colors was assessed, and 1 of 2 evaluations of multiple schedule arrangements were conducted. Results indicated that participants' ability to select and tact colors was strongly correlated with the efficacy of standard multiple schedule arrangements. Additionally, multiple schedule arrangements employing topographically dissimilar stimuli were observed to be equally as effective as standard arrangements and the inclusion of different colored stimuli across arrangements did not reduce the likelihood that discriminated responding emerged simultaneously across all conditions, when it was observed to emerge at all.

An individualized method for establishing and thinning multiple schedules of reinforcement following functional communication training

Using multiple schedules of reinforcement following functional communication training (FCT) can produce discriminated mands while maintaining low rates of problem behavior (Fisher et al., 1998; Hanley et al., 2001). A review of this literature (Saini et al., 2016) noted the absence of a method for systematically determining the duration of reinforcement (SD) and extinction (SΔ) components in such multiple-schedule arrangements. The same review also suggested that introducing a momentary differential-reinforcement contingency could aid in producing discriminated mands by eliminating the possibility of adventitious reinforcement. The current investigation attempted to evaluate these two recommendations by altering the durations of SD and SΔ components of a multiple schedule based on participants’ response patterns during treatment. Specifically, we (a) yoked the duration of the initial SΔ component to the rate of mands during FCT and (b) introduced a delay to the SD following instances of problem behavior. All five participants exhibited discriminated mands. In addition, mands maintained for all five participants, and problem behavior remained low for four participants when the schedule of reinforcement was systematically thinned.

A preliminary investigation on improving functional communication training by mitigating resurgence of destructive behavior.

Despite the effectiveness and widespread use of functional communication training (FCT), resurgence of destructive behavior can occur if the functional communication response (FCR) contacts a challenge, such as lapses in treatment integrity. We evaluated a method to mitigate resurgence by conducting FCT using a multiple schedule of reinforcement prior to extinction. After functional analyses of 2 boys' destructive behavior and treatment with FCT (Study 1), we compared levels of resurgence during an extinction challenge either after a typical FCT sequence or after exposure to schedule thinning in the context of a multiple-schedule arrangement (Study 2). Results for both participants suggested that schedule thinning using discriminative stimuli in a multiple schedule mitigated the resurgence of destructive behavior.

Discrimination training reduces high rate social approach behaviors in Angelman syndrome: Proof of principle

This proof of principle study was designed to evaluate whether excessively high rates of social approach behaviors in children with Angelman syndrome (AS) can be modified using a multiple schedule design. Four children with AS were exposed to a multiple schedule arrangement, in which social reinforcement and extinction, cued using a novel stimulus, were alternated. Twenty-five to 35 discrimination training sessions were conducted and levels of approach behaviors were measured before and after the discrimination training for two children. All four participants evidenced discrimination between conditions of reinforcement and extinction after 16-20 teaching sessions as indicated by lower rates of social approach behaviors in the presence of the S(Δ) for extinction. Reversal effects for the two children for whom this design was implemented were evident. The results demonstrate that after repeated training, the use of a novel stimulus can serve as a cue for children with AS to discriminate adult availability. This is a potentially effective component of a broader intervention strategy but highlights the need for sustained teaching procedures within this population.

DISCRIMINATED FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION: A PROCEDURAL EXTENSION OF FUNCTIONAL COMMUNICATION TRAINING

A limitation associated with communication-based interventions for problem behavior is the potential for requesting reinforcement at high rates. Multiple-schedule arrangements have been demonstrated to be effective for controlling rates of responding (Hanley, Iwata, & Thompson, 2001). In the current study, we extended previous research by teaching individuals to attend to naturally occurring discriminative stimuli (e.g., caregiver behavior) instead of arbitrary stimuli (e.g., picture cards). Following successful treatment with functional communication and extinction, 2 participants were taught to request attention differentially based on whether the caregiver was engaging in a variety of "busy" (e.g., talking on the phone) or "nonbusy" (e.g., reading a magazine) activities. Following training, each participant engaged in communication primarily when caregivers were engaged in nonbusy activities.

ON THE APPLIED USE OF PROGRESSIVE‐RATIO SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

Examination of responding under various schedule arrangements is a core component of many analyses of operant behavior. Much of the pioneering work in applied behavior analysis was bred from laboratory research involving the exposure of nonhuman subjects to a variety of schedule arrangements. For example, Reynolds (1961) described a multiple-schedule arrangement in which one component consisted of reinforcement for not responding for a specific period of time (i.e., differential reinforcement of other behavior [DRO]). Exposure to the DRO schedule resulted in generally low rates of responding. Since the initial publication of the basic DRO schedule arrangement, DRO procedures have been frequently employed in the treatment of destructive behavior (e.g., Cowdery, Iwata, & Pace, 1990; Mazaleski, Iwata, Vollmer, Zarcone, & Smith, 1993). Hodos (1961) described a schedule arrangement in which the requirement to access reinforcement increased on a trial-by-trial basis within the course of a single session. That is, the subject would initially emit a predetermined number of responses before reinforcement delivery (e.g., 20 responses). Following reinforcer delivery, the subsequent response requirement would increase by some increment (e.g., another 10 responses; referred to as a step size) such that in the next trial the subject would be required to complete more responses than in previous trials (e.g., 30 responses before reinforcer delivery, 40 responses before reinforcer delivery). Within-session changes in response requirements in this pattern constitute a progressive-ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement. (It should be noted that increasing response requirements over successive sessions, e.g., DeLeon, Iwata, Goh, & Worsdell, 1997; Tustin, 1994; has been conceptualized as a form of PR schedule arrangement by some, e.g., Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007. For the purpose of the current discussion, PR schedules will be conceptualized as those schedules that increase during the course of a single session.) The primary clinical application of PR schedules involves assessment and quantification of differential reinforcer efficacy, which has sometimes been referred to as reinforcer potency (i.e., the ability of a reinforcer to maintain behavior; Baron, Mikorski, & Schlund, 1992; Hodos & Kalman, 1963; Johnson & Bickel, 2006). The assessment of reinforcer potency using PR schedules is commonly achieved through a comparison of relative break points (also referred to as breaking points). A break point is usually characterized as the last reinforced PR requirement that is completed. To illustrate, suppose a PR schedule were arranged with a step size of five responses. If a participant completed five trials and emitted 25 responses during the last trial before responding ceased with Stimulus A and completed eight trials and emitted 40 responses during the last trial with Stimulus B before responding ceased, one would conclude that Stimulus B was a more potent reinforcer than Stimulus A because Stimulus B had a higher break point. That is, Stimulus B supported more responding as the schedule requirements increased. In addition to the use of break points as a measure of reinforcer efficacy, PR schedules are also characterized by the omission of a terminal schedule value. That is, PR schedule requirements typically increase throughout the course of a session until responding stops for a period of time (e.g., 5 min) or until a predetermined duration of the observation has been reached (a session cap). Thus, total response output (as opposed to response rate) and break-point values are the primary measures of interest when evaluating behavior with PR schedules.

A PRACTICAL VARIATION OF A MULTIPLE‐SCHEDULE PROCEDURE: BRIEF SCHEDULE‐CORRELATED STIMULI

Multiple schedules using continuous discriminative stimuli have been used to minimize children's disruptive requesting for teacher attention (e.g., colored floral leis; Tiger & Hanley, 2004; Tiger, Hanley, & Heal, 2006). The present study evaluated the effectiveness of, and children's preferences for, two multiple-schedule arrangements in which brief experimenter vocalizations served as discriminative stimuli. Results showed that brief signals were highly effective discriminative stimuli for 3 of the 4 children, and that all children preferred one or both variations of the multiple schedule to a control arrangement. For 1 child, highly discriminated responding was achieved only when continuous signals were introduced.

ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR OCCASIONED BY INTERRUPTION OF FREE‐OPERANT BEHAVIOR

The current study describes the assessment and treatment of the problem behavior of 3 individuals with autism for whom initial functional analysis results were inconclusive. Subsequent analyses revealed that the interruption of free-operant behavior using "do" requests (Study 1) as well as "do" and "don't" requests (Study 2) occasioned problem behavior. Initially, treatment involved differential and noncontingent reinforcement without interruption. To make the intervention more sustainable in the natural environment (where interruptions are unavoidable), a two-component multiple-schedule arrangement was used to progressively increase the period of time in which ongoing activities would be interrupted. During generalization sessions, the intervention was applied across a variety of contexts and therapists.

Fixed-ratio size as a determinant of tolerance to cocaine

Six studies, examining five drugs in three species, have demonstrated that tolerance development is impaired under relatively long fixed-ratio (FR) schedules compared with relatively short FR schedules. One such study demonstrated that substantial tolerance to the rate-reducing effects of cocaine in pigeons developed under the FR 5 and 25 components of a multiple schedule of food delivery, but little or no tolerance developed under the FR 125 component. The present study examined the acute and chronic effects of cocaine in three groups of pigeons. One group was exposed to a simple FR 5 schedule of food delivery, a second to a simple FR 125 schedule of food delivery, and a third to a simple FR 125 schedule that alternated across sessions with a multiple FR 125 FR 250 schedule. When administered acutely, cocaine (1-10mg/kg) produced dose-dependent rate decreases under all schedules. With chronic exposure to 5.56mg/kg cocaine, tolerance clearly developed under the FR 5 schedule. Evidence of tolerance under the FR 125 schedule was equivocal, but strongest when that schedule alternated with an FR 250 component under a multiple schedule arrangement. There was no consistent evidence of tolerance under the FR 250 component. These results suggest that, although the development of tolerance under an FR schedule may be affected by exposure to a longer schedule, tolerance to cocaine does not develop readily under "long" FR schedules, regardless of the context in which they appear.

A note on time out from avoidance with the chimpanzee.

Fixed-interval responding which produced time out from shock avoidance schedules was established in a chimpanzee. Two widely differing discriminated avoidance schedules were employed in a multiple schedule arrangement. Differences in fixed interval rate were found to be related both to the schedule from which the subject was escaping and to the amount of training.