Multiple Resource Theory Research Articles

The Multiple Resource Theory and Model. Some Misconceptions in Data Interpretations

Multiple Resource Theory, and one particular instantiation of the theory in the 4-Dimensional Multiple Resource Model have often been invoked as mechanisms to account for dual task interference. Here we present the data and analyses requirements necessary to conclude that the multiple resource model either does or does not predict an increase in the dual task decrement; and in particular we describe the need to consider and control both task difficulty and task priority in comparing conditions that are argued to contrast shared versus separate resources. We then consider one common misconception regarding what the model predicts regarding perfect time sharing, and address the importance of considering alternative theory-based mechanisms of task switching and of confusion and crosstalk, to account for patterns of multi-task interference.

Speech, Nonspeech Audio, and Visual Interruptions of a Tracking Task: A Replication and Extension of Nees and Sampsell (2021)

Interruptions from technology—such as alerts from mobile communication devices—are a pervasive aspect of modern life. Interruptions can be detrimental to performance of the ongoing, interrupted task. Designers often can choose whether interruptions are delivered as visual or auditory alerts. Contradictory theories have emerged regarding whether auditory or visual alerts are more harmful to performance of ongoing visual tasks. Multiple Resources Theory predicts better overall performance with auditory alerts, but Auditory Preemption Theory predicts better overall performance with visual alerts. Nees and Sampsell previously found that multitasking was superior with nonspeech auditory alerts as compared to visual alerts. In the current experiment, their methods were replicated and extended to include a speech auditory alerts condition. Performance of the ongoing tracking task was worse with interruption from visual alerts, and perceived workload also was highest in this condition. Reaction time to alerts was fastest with visual alerts. There also was converging evidence to suggest that performance with speech alerts was superior to performance with nonspeech tonal alerts. The current experiment replicated the results of Nees and Sampsell and extended their findings to speech alert sounds. Like in their study, the pattern of findings here support Multiple Resources Theory over Auditory Preemption Theory.

A Team Cognition Measurement Method for Single Pilot Operations Human-Machine System Design

Team cognition is an important indicator to reflect the trend of single pilot operation (SPO) human-machine system team performance. How to measure team cognition to explore different function allocation decisions before the implementation of prototypes or simulators has become a significant step in the early SPO human-machine system design. Therefore, this article proposed a team cognition measurement method based on the social network analysis (SNA) method, namely cognitive social network analysis (CSNA). The CSNA method firstly identified the nodes, edge directions and channel resource values of each task; secondly calculated the cognitive demands of each task based on multiple resource theory; thirdly summed the cognitive demands of the same task to construct the association matrix; and finally calculated global and nodal network metrics. The results of the study showed that (1) the CSNA method could identify design flaws of the initial SPO human-machine system; (2) the CSNA method increased the ability to identify the changes in both the cognitive demands of tasks and the overall workloads of human agents compared to the SNA method; (3) the CSNA method could help researchers make reasonable design suggestions to improve the team performance of the redesigned SPO human-machine system. The above results not only verify the feasibility of the CSNA method, but also show that the CSNA method is superior to the current SNA method.

Development and Proof of Concept of a Predictive Model of Flight Deck Cognitive Workload

Abstract: Workload can be regarded as the “cost” (in information processing terms) of performing a given flight task. Predictive models of workload are valuable at the early stages of system design to identify potentially excessive demands on the human operator before major system development commences. This paper describes the early development of a task-based predictive workload method. It utilizes a scenario-based timeline analysis supplemented by characterizations of the cognitive nature of the pilot’s tasks using Wickens’ multiple resource theory, followed by the identification of likely task conflicts and estimates of the influence of the task environment. Workload predictions were made for a manual approach, landing and roll-out scenario in a modern airliner. Predictions were compared against corresponding Bedford scale workload estimates. Results show that the predictive workload technique produced comparable estimates of cognitive workload measured using the Bedford scale.

Mental workload evaluation model of receiver aircraft pilots based on multiple resource theory

AbstractAerial refueling is an extender of air combat capability that has received widespread attention with the development of the military field, particularly the mental workload of the pilot performing the aerial refueling task, as it is the key to the aerial refueling success rate. Therefore, this study analyzes the behavior of receiver aircraft pilots from rendezvous to the separation phase and constructs a mental workload model to improve the aerial refueling success rate. First, the time‐channel‐action unit network was constructed based on Petri net and multiple resource theory (MRT). Second, the mental workload evaluation model was constructed from three dimensions: conventional resource occupation, additional resource occupation, and time occupation. Finally, a simulated experiment was conducted, and the results showed that the mental workload obtained by the model constructed in this study exhibits a high positive correlation with subjective mental workload, pupil diameter, and blink rate, surpassing the accuracy of the traditional MRT model.

Toward Workload-Based Adaptive Automation: The Utility of fNIRS for Measuring Load in Multiple Resources in the Brain

We investigate the utility of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) for workload-based adaptive automation through the lens of multiple resource theory. We focus on the criteria of unobtrusiveness, responsiveness, load sensitivity (low vs high load), and load diagnosticity (differentiating types of load). We report a large meta-review, in which we conclude that only a few studies were suitable for evaluating sensitivity and diagnosticity in complex real-world tasks. While these reveal that the fNIRS signal is adequately sensitive to gradations of load level changes (sensitivity), the diagnosticity of fNIRS to different sources of cognitive load remained uncertain. We manipulated mental load of a complex shape sorting task via working memory load (WM) and visual perceptual load (VL), while a secondary auditory task was present throughout. We measured the effect of these manipulations at the group-level using conventional secondary and eyetracking workload measures, as well as hemodynamic response in specific functional regions in the brain, including regions involved in multi-tasking (MT), VL, WM, and auditory load (AL). Our findings revealed that fNIRS is both sensitive and diagnostic to load in complex tasks, with greater sensitivity revealed by deoxyhemoglobin than oxyhemoglobin and the brain regions associated with diagnosticity align with neuroscience literature on perceptual load, WM, and goal-directed multitasking.

Predictive Mental Workload Modeling Methodology for Single-Pilot Operations System Design

Predictive mental workload model is an important tool for evaluating early single-pilot operations (SPO) system design and can be used to explore the impact of different function allocation decisions before prototype or simulator implementation. To build this model, this paper proposes a methodology based on task analysis. Firstly, it selects the approach and landing scenario of the current two-pilot operations (TCO) and completes the task description of the TCO using the hierarchical task analysis. Secondly, it identifies the function allocation requirements for the transition from TCO to SPO using the work domain analysis and proposes the original function allocation decisions based on the SPO’s system framework. Finally, it creates the predictive mental workload model for evaluating different SPO system design options based on temporal network and multiple resource theory. The researchers use the created model to evaluate the original function allocation decisions and find that the designed SPO system has instantaneous workload values that exceed the upper limit at multiple time points. By analyzing the causes of these problems, the researchers introduce audible warnings and visual indicators to the SPO system to improve design decisions and evaluate these decisions. The results show that the continuous workload profile and overall average workload of the redesigned SPO system are better than the current TCO system, and also prove that the predictive mental workload model can be well applied to evaluate the system design of early SPO.

Lecturers’ Workload and Productivity in Public Universities in Rivers State

This paper x-rayed lecturers’ workload and productivity in universities in Rivers State. Lecturers’ productivity can be said to be useful results gotten from efforts made by the lecturers to attain educational goals in the university setting. Four research questions and four corresponding null hypotheses guided the study. The theory that guided the study was Multiple Resource Theory by Christopher Wickens in (1984). The study adopted the descriptive research design. The population of this study was drawn from the three public universities located in Rivers State. There are 2,849 lecturers from the three public universities in Rivers State. The sample size for this study was 852 respondents, which will be drawn from the 3 public universities in Rivers State. To achieve this, a proportionate stratified sampling technique was used to select 367 lecturers from the University of Port Harcourt, 243 from Rivers State University, and 262 lecturers from Ignatius Ajuru University of Education. Lecturers' workload and productivity in universities questionnaire was used for data collection (LWPUQ). This instrument was face validated by experts, and the overall internal consistency reliability co-efficient index obtained through the Cronbach Alpha method was 0.83. The researcher and two research assistants collected data through the direct delivery method. Means, standard deviation, and rank order were used to answer the four research questions, while Z-test was used to test the hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance. The findings of this study indicated to a great extent that supervision of a large number of undergraduate projects and postgraduate theses influence lecturers’ productivity in universities in Rivers State. The study, therefore, among others, recommended that the management of universities in River State should delegate some administrative duties carried out by lecturers to non-academic staff to enable them to concentrate more on teaching and research.

Impact Analysis of Situation Awareness Based on a Multitasking Difficulty Quantitative Model

Situation awareness (SA) is a key indicator of operator task performance and behavioral safety in Human-Machine Interaction (HMI), and task difficulty is an important influencing factors in establishing and maintaining SA, especially in safety-critical scenarios such as flying and nuclear. However, the complexity and diversity of multitasking make it difficult to quantify task difficulty, which to a certain extent limits the research on cognitive research. To solve this problem, we proposed an approach to quantifying task difficulty in multitasking and analyzed the effect of task difficulty on different levels of SA through experiments in this paper. First, a task difficulty measure for a single meta-task was developed based on Shannon’s information theory, including both discrete and continuous meta-tasks. Next, a three-dimensional attribute model of meta-tasks was proposed to measure the difficulty value added by concurrent tasks based on multiple resource theory. Finally, an experiment was conducted to measure SA at different levels based on SAGAT, and SA under different levels of task difficulty was analyzed. The results showed a strong negative correlation between SA and task difficulty. Specifically, compared to SA at the comprehension and prediction levels, SA at the perceptual level was more easily influenced by task difficulty. This study can provide some reference for the quantify of task difficulty in human factors experiments, the optimization of tasks in HMI, and the selection of operator attention allocation strategies.

Effects of multitasking on interpreting a spearcon sequence display for monitoring multiple patients

Spearcons are time-compressed speech phrases. When arranged in a sequence representing vital signs of multiple patients, spearcons may be more informative than conventional auditory alarms. However, multiple resource theory suggests that certain timeshared tasks might interfere with listeners’ ability to understand spearcons. We tested the relative interference with spearcon identification from the following ongoing tasks: (1) manual tracking, (2) linguistic detection of spoken target words, (3) arithmetic true-false judgments, or (4) an ignored background speech control. Participants were 80 non-clinicians. The linguistic task worsened spearcon identification more than the tracking task, p < .001, and more than ignored background speech, p = .012. The arithmetic task worsened spearcon identification more than the tracking task, p < .001. The linguistic task and arithmetic task both worsened performance, p = .674. However, no ongoing task affected participants’ ability to detect which patient(s) in a sequence had abnormal vital signs. Future research could investigate whether timeshared tasks affect non-speech auditory alerts.

Talking to a bot or a wall? How chatbots vs. human agents affect anticipated communication quality

Chatbots have been applied to computer-mediated communication to replace human agents due to their high efficiency and cost-effectiveness. However, their outcomes are not always desirable, and limited guidance exists on how chatbots impact users' perceptions of the communication process. Drawing on cue-filtered-out theories and multiple resource theory, this study investigated the impacts of the communicating agent (chatbot vs. human agent) on anticipated communication quality and the underlying mechanism. Two experimental studies revealed that users' anticipated communication quality was lower with chatbots than with human agents due to the serial mediating role of self-focused attention and user empathy. Moreover, moderation analyses found that a multiple-choice communication strategy for chatbots can enhance users' anticipated communication quality by impacting self-focused attention compared to an open-ended strategy. The findings contribute to the knowledge of the processes driving users’ anticipated communication quality toward chatbot applications and offer managerial implications for chatbots and communication strategies.

Do multimodal search cues help or hinder teleoperated search and rescue missions?

In search and rescue missions, teleoperated rovers equipped with sensor technology are deployed into harsh environments to search for targets. To support the search task, unimodal/multimodal cues can be presented via visual, acoustic and/or haptic channels. However, human operators often perform the search task in parallel with the driving task, which can cause interference of attentional resources based on multiple resource theory. Navigating corners can be a particularly challenging aspect of remote driving, as described with the Cornering Law. Therefore, search cues should not interfere with cornering. The present research explores how unimodal/multimodal search cues affect cornering performance, with typical communication delays of 50 ms and 500 ms. One-hundred thirty-one participants, distributed into two delay groups, performed a target search task with unimodal/multimodal search cues. Search cues did not interfere with cornering performance with 50 ms delays. For 500 ms delays, search cues presented via the haptic channel significantly interfered with the driving task. Practitioner summary: Teleoperated rovers can support search and rescue missions. Search cues may assist the human operator, but they may also interfere with the task of driving. The study examined interference of unimodal and multimodal search cues. Haptic cues should not be implemented for systems with a delay of 500 ms or more.

Information processing on smartphones in public versus private

Abstract People increasingly turn to news on mobile devices, often while out and about, attending to daily tasks. Yet, we know little about whether attention to and learning from information on a mobile differs by the setting of use. This study builds on Multiple Resource Theory (Wickens, 1984) and the Resource Competition Framework (Oulasvirta et al., 2005) to compare visual attention to a dynamic newsfeed, varying only the setting: private or public. We use mobile eye-tracking to evaluate the effects of setting on attention and assess correspondent learning differences after exposure to the feed, which allows us to uncover a relationship between attention and learning. Findings indicate higher visual attention to mobile newsfeed posts in public, relative to a private setting. Moreover, scrolling through news on a smartphone in public attenuates some knowledge gain but is beneficial for other learning outcomes.

Impact of Industry 4.0 adoption on workload demands in contact centers

AbstractThis paper examines the impact of Industry 4.0 (I4.0) technologies on employees workload in contact centers. For that, we adopted the NASA task load index questionnaire to assess the workload of 100 employees from different contact centers in India that have been adopting I4.0 technologies. The collected data is analyzed through multivariate techniques. This study is grounded on concepts from the multiple resource theory. Our findings indicate positive and negative effects of I4.0 on employees workload, conditioned on the adopted technologies (i.e., Internet‐of‐Things, cloud computing, big data, machine learning/artificial intelligence, remote monitoring, and wireless sensors) and workload dimensions considered (i.e., mental demand, physical demand, temporal demand, overall performance, effort, and frustration level). Identifying I4.0's impacts on employees workload allows planning of managerial efforts to mitigate potential issues while setting clear expectations related to the digital transformation of contact centers' processes and services.

Examining the efficacy of vibrotactile displays for monitoring patient vital signs: Six laboratory studies of change detection and state identification.

Healthcare workers often monitor patients while moving between different locations and tasks, and away from conventional monitoring displays. Vibrotactile displays can provide patient information in vibrotactile patterns that are felt regardless of the worker's location. We examined how effectively participants could identify changes in vibrotactile representations of patient heart rate (HR) and oxygen saturation (SpO₂). In Experiment 1, participants identified changes in HR and SpO₂ with greater than 90% accuracy while using vibrotactile displays configured in either an integrated or a separated format. In Experiment 2, incidental auditory and visual cues were removed and performance was still greater than 90% for the integrated display. In Experiments 3 and 4, ongoing tasks with low or high task load were introduced; high load worsened participants' response accuracy and speed at identifying vital signs. In Experiments 5 and 6, alternative designs were tested, including a design with a seemingly more natural mapping of HR to vibrotactile stimulation. However, no design supported more accurate performance than the integrated display. Results are interpreted with respect to multiple resource theory, and constraints on conforming to design guidelines are noted. Vibrotactile displays appear to be viable and therefore potentially suitable for use in healthcare and other contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A prediction model of multiple resource theory for dual task walking

A model of Multiple Resource Theory (MRT) was created to describe the influence of different concurrent tasks on driving but no such framework exists for DT walking. The objective of this study was to modify MRT model and computational DT framework to explore two task-related concepts—resource demand and resource conflict—in the context of gait and to illustrate the initial validity of the modified model. A literature search was conducted to identify DT walking-related elements related to the MRT model. An instructional guide for utilizing the computational framework was constructed using a modified e-Delphi method. Inter-rater reliability of the constructed guideline was analyzed by Kappa statistics. The initial validity of the modified model was tested using meta-regression analyses. Three new elements were included into the modified model: vestibular and somatosensory perceptions, and locomotor response. The spatial code from the original model was modified into a visuospatial domain. The computational framework was constructed, and two separate guidelines were created for walking and concurrent tasks. Using the guidelines and computational framework, task-related elements were quantified for meta-regression analysis. The analysis showed that the modified model can explain 79% of the variability in speed reduction during DT walking.

The Role of Visual and Auditory Communication in the Performance of a Joint Team Task.

This study examines visual, auditory, and the combination of both (bimodal) coupling modes in the performance of a two-person perceptual-motor task, in which one person provides the perceptual inputs and the other the motor inputs. Parking a plane or landing a helicopter on a mountain top requires one person to provide motor inputs while another person provides perceptual inputs. Perceptual inputs are communicated either visually, auditorily, or through both cues. One participant drove a remote-controlled car around an obstacle and through a target, while another participant provided auditory, visual, or bimodal cues for steering and acceleration. Difficulty was manipulated using target size. Performance (trial time, path variability), cue rate, and spatial ability were measured. Visual coupling outperformed auditory coupling. Bimodal performance was best in the most difficult task condition but also high in the easiest condition. Cue rate predicted performance in all coupling modes. Drivers with lower spatial ability required a faster auditory cue rate, whereas drivers with higher ability performed best with a lower rate. Visual cues result in better performance when only one coupling mode is available. As predicted by multiple resource theory, when both cues are available, performance depends more on auditory cueing. In particular, drivers must be able to transform auditory cues into spatial actions. Spotters should be trained to provide an appropriate cue rate to match the spatial ability of the driver or pilot. Auditory cues can enhance visual communication when the interpersonal task is visual with spatial outputs.

Gazing at the Gazers: An Investigation of Travel Advertisement Modality Interference

Tourists are often exposed to imagery of a destination through advertisement modalities such as texts and pictures before they visit the place. This research used an eye-tracking technique to examine the effect of spatial and modality configurations on tourist destination advertisement attention and travel intention. Drawing on multiple resource theory and based on two 4 (spatial displacement) × 3 (modality) experiments, results reveal that spatial location and modality have an impact on tourist attention with respect to their dwell time and fixation counts, which lead to greater propensity to visit a place. In addition, tourists paid more attention to advertisements that occupy congruent attentional resources than to those using interference resources.

Simple auditory and visual interruptions of a continuous visual tracking task: modality effects and time course of interference

Research has produced conflicting evidence regarding whether performance of an on-going visual task is disrupted more by an interruption from a visual or an auditory alert. Tasks and alerts studied to date have been complex or idiosyncratic. This experiment examined how the modality of simple alerts—visual icons or auditory tones—affected performance of an on-going visual task. Participants (58 females and 4 males) tracked a visual target while performing a choice reaction time task in response to alerts. Visual alerts were more harmful to performance of the tracking task. Dual task workload was lowest with an auditory alert, provided there was not noise present. Interruptions affected tracking task performance for around 1500 ms. Results supported the predictions of Multiple Resources Theory and showed no evidence of auditory preemption. In practical applications for which an on-going visual task is interrupted, auditory alerts may be less disruptive and may reduce perceived workload. Practitioner Summary: Many practical scenarios involve on-going visual tasks that are interrupted by simple alerts requiring a simple response. Auditory alerts may be less disruptive than visual alerts and may reduce perceived workload. A conservative estimate is that the effects of even simple interruptions will last a minimum of 1500 ms. Abbreviations: ANOVA: analysis of variance; LSD: least significant difference; TLX: task load index

Balancing act: A phenomenological study on lived experiences of teachers in calbayog city, Philippines

This research study employed a Phenomenological Research Design to identify and explore the duties encompassed in the workday of a college teacher. This study was anchored on the following theories: Wickens&rsquo; Multiple Resources Theory, Juran&rsquo;s 80/20 Theory and Parkinson&rsquo;s Law. From the data analyses and upon utilization of a semi-structured interview and subsequent implementation of the Colaizzi Process, three major themes emerged: (1) Chrono-Juggling; (2) Impact and Sacrifices; and (3) Finding Inspiration and Inducement. The result showed that these teachers experienced a difficult time balancing roles inside and outside the school. They commonly end up spending most of their time at schools and related activities sacrificing personal moments. It is recommended that the institution should provide support and development program for the college teachers especially in areas that provides options that balance personal and professional time.