Multiple Exemplar Training Research Articles

A Laboratory Evaluation of the Effects of Empathy Training on Racial Bias

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects of behavioral procedures, including relational training and multiple exemplar training on empathic responding of individuals who display racial bias. In particular, this study used a multielement design with five adult participants to evaluate whether the presentation of relational frames of coordination and distinction between the participants’ values and the values of a person belonging to a group for which a bias existed altered empathic responses toward people belonging to such groups. The results showed empathic responding was higher when relational frames of coordination were presented and lower when relational frames of distinction were presented. This study provides preliminary data suggesting that relational training may result in altered patterns of empathic responses toward people belonging to different racial groups for which a bias previously was observed.

Integrating Relational Frame Theory (RFT) and Verbal Behavior (VB) in Early Intervention

AbstractApplying relational frame theory (RFT) to language intervention programs allows behavior analysts to maintain a focus on programming for generative language by providing systematic multiple exemplar training to establish repertoires of derived relational responding. Applying Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior provides for a focus on identifying sources of control for discriminated responding, and effective means of teaching early verbal operants. Both emphasize the centrality of repertoires of cooperation in language development, and an expansive understanding of contextual control. Our work emphasizes the utility of integrating these two approaches, and this article outlines the relevant theoretical background and empirical basis for assessment and teaching programs, discusses points of intersection of the two approaches, provides examples of application, and prompts future research efforts.

Making Deception Fun: Teaching Autistic Individuals How to Play Friendly Tricks

AbstractPerspective taking is a critical repertoire for navigating social relationships and consists of a variety of complex verbal skills, including socially adaptive forms of deception. Detecting and being able to use socially adaptive deception likely has many practical uses, including defending oneself against bullying, telling white lies to avoid hurting others’ feelings, keeping secrets and bluffing during games, and playing friendly tricks on others. Previous research has documented that some Autistic1 children have challenges identifying deception and playfully deceiving others (Reinecke et al., 1997). The current study employed a multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the use of multiple exemplar training, rules, modeling, practice, and feedback for teaching four Autistic children and adolescents to use deception to play friendly tricks on others. The procedure was successful for all participants, and generalization was achieved across novel, untrained tricks.

Effects of Serial Multiple Exemplar Training on Bidirectional Naming in Children with Autism

This study examined the effect of a serial multiple exemplar training (S-MET) procedure on bidirectional naming (BiN) in four preschool children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A non-concurrent multiple baseline design was used to evaluate the effects of training listener and speaker behavior for one stimulus at a time until BiN occurred. When BiN occurred, probes were conducted to measure whether generalization occurred across settings and people. Three out of four participants’ responding met the mastery criterion for BiN, while the fourth participant improved her performance. The results of this study suggest that S-MET may be a promising intervention and contribute to our knowledge about learning histories required for BiN.

Toward establishing a qualifying autoclitic repertoire in children with autism spectrum disorder.

Autoclitics are secondary verbal operants that are controlled by a feature of the conditions that occasion or evoke a primary verbal operant such as a tact or mand. Qualifying autoclitics extend, negate, or assert a speaker's primary verbal response and modify the intensity or direction of the listener's behavior. Howard and Rice (1988) established autoclitics that indicated weak stimulus control (e.g., "like a [primary tact]") with four neurotypical preschool children. However, generalization to newly acquired tacts was limited. In Experiment 1, we addressed similar behavior as in Howard and Rice but with autistic children while using simultaneous teaching procedures, and we observed generalization across sets and with newly acquired tacts. In Experiment 2, we evaluated the effects of multiple-exemplar training on generalization of autoclitics across sets of naturalistic stimuli. Across participants, gradual increases in the frequency of autoclitics occurred with untaught stimuli after teaching with one or more sets.

Generalized contextual control based on nonarbitrary and arbitrary transfer of stimulus functions.

Two experiments with human adults investigated the extent to which the transfer of function in accordance with nonarbitrary versus arbitrary stimulus relations may be brought under contextual control. Experiment 1 comprised four phases. Phase 1 consisted of multiple-exemplar training to establish discriminative functions for solid, dashed, or dotted lines. Phase 2 trained and tested two equivalence classes, each containing a 3D picture, a solid, a dashed, and a dotted form. During Phase 3, a discriminative function was established for each 3D picture. Phase 4 presented the solid, dashed, and dotted stimuli in two different frames, black or gray. The black frame cued function transfer based on nonarbitrary stimulus relations (Frame Physical); the gray frame cued function transfer based on equivalence relations (Frame Arbitrary). Testing and training with the frames was continued until contextual control was established; subsequently contextual control was demonstrated with novel equivalence classes with stimuli composed of the same forms. Experiment 2 replicated and extended Experiment 1 by demonstrating that such contextual control generalized to novel equivalence classes comprising novel forms and responses. The potential implications of the findings for developing increasingly precise experimental analyses of clinically relevant phenomena are considered (e.g., defusion).

Training temporal relational framing in young children

Temporal relational framing involves responding to how events are related together in time (e.g., if A comes after B, then B comes before A). Relational frame theory (RFT) sees this skill as important to navigating everyday life contexts involving time such as sequencing events and organizing one's behavior. Previous research has shown that multiple exemplar training (MET) can be used to train relational framing in children, though no work has been done specifically with temporal frames. This study aimed to train temporal relational framing in three typically developing 5-year-olds using MET in a combined multiple probe design across participants and responses. Following training, all participants reached criterion levels and passed generalization tests for mutual and combinatorial entailment, and transformation of function with untrained stimuli. Participants maintained high overall performance four weeks following training. Implications and future research directions are discussed.

The Problem of Class Breakdown in Sidman's (1994, 2000) Theory about the Origin of Stimulus Equivalence.

Sidman (1994, 2000) hypothesized that equivalence relations are a direct outcome of reinforcement contingencies. This theory is problematic because contingencies do not always result in equivalence. Sidman proposed that equivalence relations may conflict with analytic units, the other outcome of contingencies (e.g., in conditional discriminations with common responses/reinforcers). This conflict may result in a generalized class breakdown and a failure to pass equivalence tests. This is more likely in nonhumans, very young humans, etc. The conflict can also result in a selective class breakdown and success in equivalence tests. This occurs after experience shows the organism the necessity and utility of this process. The nature of that experience and the class breakdown processes were not described by Sidman. I explored the implications of the following hypotheses for Sidman's theory. First, conditional discriminations with a common response/reinforcer result in a generalized class breakdown when participants fail to discriminate emergent relations incompatible with contingencies from those compatible. Second, learning to discriminate between the two requires a history of multiple exemplar training (MET). This implies that equivalence class breakdown is a common response to exemplars that have nothing in common except their relations. This, however, contradicts Sidman's views about the impossibility of such process in the absence of a complex verbal repertoire. If that type of learning from MET is possible, then the possibility that MET results in the selective formation of equivalence classes must be admitted, and the utility of hypothesizing that equivalence is a direct outcome of reinforcement contingencies can be questioned.

The Effects of Multiple-Exemplar Training on Generalization of Social Skills with Adolescents and Young Adults with Autism: a Systematic Review

The Effects of Multiple-Exemplar Training on Generalization of Social Skills with Adolescents and Young Adults with Autism: a Systematic Review

Teaching Joint Attention: Assessing Generalization and Maintenance of Effects using Multiple Exemplar Training.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of multiple exemplar training and social reinforcement on the maintenance and generalization of joint attention initiations across toy classes. Three children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) participated. After analyzing samples of joint attention initiations from neurotypical peers, a composite score was developed and used to evaluate joint attention initiations of the children with ASD. Gaze shifting and commenting were taught using social reinforcement in a multiple exemplar format. Training sessions were followed by probes of untrained stimuli both within and across toy classes. Results showed that the participants acquired both gaze shifting and commenting using social consequences as reinforcers. Following training, participants initiated joint attention with a frequency within the range of their typically developing peers. Multiple exemplar training was also effective in facilitating acquisition within classes and joint attention maintenance during follow-up probes. Additionally, all participants generalized the acquired skills to a class of untrained stimuli.

Social referencing training in children with autism spectrum disorder: A randomized controlled study.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have been shown to exhibit fewer instances of social referencing compared to their typically developing peers. The current study evaluated the effectiveness of multiple-exemplar training, prompting, and social reinforcement to teach social referencing. We used a single-blind randomized control trial with a multiple-baseline design nested within the experimental group to evaluate treatment effects. Twenty-five children with ASD participated. Participants in the treatment group showed significantly higher social referencing scores. However, there were no statistically significant differences between the groups in the posttraining initiating and responding to joint attention scores. The clinical implications of our findings are discussed.

Rule-Governed Behavior: Teaching Social Skills via Rule-Following to Children with Autism

ABSTRACT Rule-governed behavior (RGB) is behavior that is controlled by verbal descriptions of contingencies rather than by direct contact or a history of direct contact with the contingencies. Humans rely on RGB to navigate a multitude of life experiences, and in doing so, we avoid direct contact with destructive or harmful contingencies or contingencies that would be inefficient to contact. However, individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) frequently struggle with RGB, leaving them at increased risk of contacting aversive consequences. As a result, acquiring RGB can be a valuable developmental outcome for individuals with ASD. The current study examined the effectiveness of an intervention program designed to promote acquisition and generalization of rule-governed social skills in children with ASD. Multiple exemplar training (MET) resulted in increased performance of the target behavior as well as successful discrimination.

Nonsimultaneous stimulus presentations and their role in listener naming.

Previous studies on naming have presented the object and its name simultaneously during both training and testing, and thus the training component may establish a transformation of function directly between the object and the name. Successful tests for listener naming may thus not require the emergence of a novel (entailed) transformation of function. The current study aimed to control for this possibility by presenting the object and the name sequentially and nonsimultaneously. Eight typically developing toddlers participated in the current study. During name training, objects and names were presented nonsimultaneously, and all participants failed to emit listener-naming responses during the first test session. Subsequently, 4 participants received multiple exemplar training, which led to improvements in listener naming for all 4; and speaker naming for only 1 participant. As a control condition, the remaining 4 participants were tested repeatedly, without multiple exemplar training, and did not show any consistent improvements in their listener or speaker performances. Multiple exemplar training thus appeared to be effective in establishing generalized listener responses, which involved generating entailed transformation of functions. The strategy of using nonsimultaneous stimulus presentations could allow for greater precision in identifying the behavioral processes involved in listener-naming.

Teaching Individuals with Autism Problem-Solving Skills for Resolving Social Conflicts.

Resolving social conflicts is a complex skill that involves consideration of the group when selecting conflict solutions. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have difficulty resolving social conflicts, yet this skill is important for successful social interaction, maintenance of relationships, and functional integration into society. This study used a nonconcurrent multiple baseline across participants design to assess the efficacy of a problem-solving training and generalization of problem solving to naturally occurring untrained social conflicts. Three male participants with ASD were taught to use a worksheet as a problem-solving tool using multiple exemplar training, error correction, rules, and reinforcement. The results showed that using the worksheet was successful in bringing about a solution to social conflicts occurring in the natural environment. In addition, the results showed that participants resolved untrained social conflicts in the absence of the worksheet during natural environment probe sessions.

Teaching young adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities to recognize and respond to coworker victimization

AbstractAdults with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) are at risk of experiencing social victimization and should be taught to respond to potential victimization they may encounter in a workplace. Using a multiple probe across participants design, the current study evaluated the effectiveness of behavioral skills with multiple exemplar training (BS + MET) to teach four young adults with IDD a four‐step response to coworker victimization protocol. Two participants demonstrated mastery of this response after only BS + MET, while the other two participants demonstrated mastery of the response after BS + MET and additional in situ training (IST). Three of the four participants demonstrated generalization across settings, across exemplars, and with coworkers, and they maintained the response up to two months after the completion of training. This study expands research of BS + MET and IST to teach safety skills to adults with IDD. Implications for further research are discussed.

Teaching comprehension of double-meaning jokes to young children.

Various forms of humor are an important aspect of social interactions, even at an early age. Humor comprehension is a repertoire that is said to emerge between the ages of 7 and 11 years, and this is primarily attributed to a child's level of cognitive development. The behavioral literature has suggested that various forms of complex verbal behavior, including the use and comprehension of humor, are learned operants that can be taught using systematic teaching procedures. The current study used multiple exemplar training and a three‐step error correction procedure to teach comprehension of double‐meaning jokes to 4 children (2 females and 2 males) aged between 5 and 6.5 years old. All participants demonstrated humor comprehension and appreciation, across multiple exemplars, following training, and maintained this at follow‐up. Implications for use with clinical populations are discussed.

Testing and Training Analogical Responding in Young Children Using A Relational Evaluation Procedure

Analogical responding, or relating relations, as operationally defined by relational frame theory (RFT), is ubiquitous in everyday language and cognition, and is a key component in learning. However, to date, little research on the assessment and training of analogical relations in young children exists in the behavioral literature. The current research aimed to assess and train analogical responding in young, typically developing children. Three 5-year-old children were assessed and trained in relating relations using an RFT-based protocol in a multiple baseline design. Following multiple exemplar training, correct responding increased to criterion levels for all three children, and both generalization and maintenance were observed. Results are discussed in relation to previous research as well as the future testing and training potential of the RFT-based protocol for more complex language.

A Systematic Replication of Teaching Children With Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities Correct Responding to False-Belief Tasks.

Behavioral research has demonstrated that children with autism spectrum disorder can be taught to recognize the false beliefs of others using video modeling (e.g., Charlop-Christy & Daneshvar Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 5(1), 12-21, 2003; LeBlanc et al. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36(2), 253-257, 2003). The current study extended such research by teaching three children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder and other developmental disabilities to respond appropriately to false-belief tasks using behavioral intervention strategies conducted in the natural environment with people in their enviornment. We used a nonconcurrent multiple-baseline across-participants design to evaluate the use of multiple-exemplar training, prompting, and reinforcement for training correct responses with two false-belief tasks: the hide-and-seek task and the M&Ms task. We also conducted a pre/posttest of an untrained false-belief task, the Sally-Anne task. All participants learned to pass the hide-and-seek task and the M&Ms task and improved on their performance on the Sally-Anne task during the posttest.

An update on the search for symmetry in nonhumans.

Sidman et al.'s (1982) failure to find evidence for symmetry (bidirectional associations between stimuli) in monkeys and baboons set the stage for decades of work on emergent relations in nonhumans. They attributed the failure to the use of procedures that did not (1) promote stimulus control based on the relation between the sample and correct comparison and (2) reduce control by irrelevant stimulus features. Previous reviews of symmetry in nonhumans indicated that multiple exemplar training and successive matching might encourage appropriate stimulus control. This review examined 16 studies that investigated symmetry in 94 subjects, including pigeons, rats, capuchin monkeys, and baboons. Several studies used alternative training procedures to minimize sources of irrelevant stimulus control, and many combined multiple exemplar training with other procedural modifications. Symmetry was observed in approximately 30% of subjects. Studies that reported the strongest evidence for symmetry used successive matching-to-sample procedures that included training on both symbolic and identity relations, and studies finding mixed evidence employed alternative methods. These studies highlight the challenge in creating training procedures that promote symmetry and the need to assess the underlying sources of control on positive demonstrations.

Training class inclusion responding in individuals with autism: Further investigation.

Class inclusion (CI) requires responding to an item simultaneously as a member of both a class and a more inclusive class that contains that class. This study extends previous research by Ming et al. (2018) who trained CI responding in typically developing children and individuals with autism using a Relational Frame Theory (RFT) approach according to which CI involves responding in accordance with relations of containment and comparison. In Ming et al., participants experienced multiple exemplar training in which class containment relations were represented by placing pictures (of subclasses of animals) within nested transparent boxes. In the current study, 3 adult males with autism and moderate learning disability were not able to learn CI responding using contingent feedback alone. However, an intervention involving nonarbitrary guidance facilitated the repertoire. Implications and future directions are discussed.