Multilingual Practices Research Articles

Multilingual Realities and English Teacher Construction in Indonesian Pesantren: A Narrative Inquiry

This study aimed to explore the construction of English teacher identity within the multilingual and religiously oriented environment of Indonesian pesantren through a narrative inquiry approach. Applying narrative inquiry, the study examined how teachers negotiate their religious and professional identities while balancing multiple language ideologies embodied in this educational context. Data were collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews and reflective journals, providing rich narratives of teachers' experiences, challenges, and strategies in navigating their roles. Three key themes emerged: balancing language ideologies, the interplay between religious and professional identities, and multilingual practices in the classroom. The findings reveal the dynamic, context-responsive nature of teacher identity development within pesantren, highlighting how educators align religious values with pedagogical goals. This study addresses a critical gap by focusing on identity formation in faith-based multilingual education settings, offering new insights beyond secular or formal institutions. The implications contribute to broader discussions on teacher identity, multilingual education, and the intersection of language, religion, and teaching practices.

Examining English learning students’ experiences related to home language use in a Physical Science and Language Development classroom

Research suggests that by allowing English Learner (EL) students to use their home languages in science class, they can better express their thinking and build content knowledge through underlying crosslinguistic awareness between languages. However, EL students’ educational backgrounds and home languages are incredibly varied. In this case study, we employ grounded theory to explore students' perceptions of their experiences in the context of a Physical Science and Language Development class [10]. We use a phenomenological approach to describe how the students experience their home language within this model of a science and language development class. Observation data, online video assignments, and small group, semi-structured interviews were used to find themes related to experiences of using home language in science class. The findings indicate varied student perspectives on the use of their home languages in science class. Some students preferred to use class time to practice using English, while others found value in using their home languages to help better understand science concepts. Student ideologies regarding English-only or multilingual practices for EL students varied. The findings also indicated that providing an opportunity for EL students to use their home languages in an asynchronous online communication platform outside of class was an effective strategy to allow time for students to practice English during science class, yet provide an opportunity to translate between home languages and English.

Models and practices of the introduction of multilingualism (comparative sociological analysis)

ABSTRACT The relevance of this research lies in the fact that models and practices of the introduction of multilingualism are an important cross-cutting problem that concerns the social, cultural, economic and, consequently, educational spheres, which contribute to the promotion of rarer languages. It is important to assess the cultural value of linguistic diversity at all levels of education and training, while simultaneously spreading information about the multiplicity of languages and their importance in the world. The purpose of the study is to consider the models and practices of the introduction of multilingualism in the context of education in the Republic of Kazakhstan through comparative sociological analysis. To achieve this goal, the following methods were used: sociological, statistical, and comparative. The research findings highlight the importance of multilingualism in personal and societal development, emphasising the need for incorporating multilingual practices in educational policies and teacher training. Additionally, the introduction of multilingualism in Kazakhstan, particularly the trilingual approach involving Kazakh, Russian, and English, is influenced by global processes and the prestige associated with different languages in society.

Complementary schools as ‘breathing spaces’: identity, multilingualism and critical pedagogies in heritage language education

Whilst mainstream schools in England may encourage multilingualism by insisting on the study of foreign languages, multilingual children are not always provided with support for the maintenance of their heritage languages and cultures. In response to this shortcoming, communities organise themselves to support their young members by setting up extra-curricular education institutions or associations, also called complementary schools, which contribute to the cultural and linguistic maintenance of minority communities. Through emblematic extracts from a fourteen-month ethnographic research in an Italian complementary school in London, this article examines how HL learners engage in and reflect on their multilingual practices and how they develop agency in their learning environment. The findings illustrate how critical modes of teaching and learning that make space for multilingualism can provide children with unique opportunities to discover, explore and experiment with their multilingual and multicultural selves, which, in turn, permit them to access linguistic resources and legitimise multilingual learner identities. Expanding on Fishman’s notion of ‘breathing space’, the article suggests that complementary schools represent a space where minority languages but also pedagogical practices can breathe and develop.

TEACHER MULTILINGUAL BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN THE ENGLISH CLASSROOM: IMPLICATIONS FOR COURSE DEVELOPMENT

The CEFR and the Companion Volume to the CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001, 2020), as the main language policy documents in Europe, intend to improve the standard of language teaching, learning and assessment. These documents among other things proclaim students’ diverse linguistic repertoire as an asset in the language classroom. In this light, the promotion of multilingual education initiatives and enhancing students’ plurilingualism is an educational requirement. Teachers, language teachers included, are seen as agents of change who can foster multilingual approaches in their language classrooms (Krulatz et al., 2022). Although previous studies have found that many language teachers hold favourable views on multilingualism, they face challenges when implementing multilingual approaches in the (foreign) language classroom. Teachers’ beliefs on multilingualism in (foreign) language teaching and learning and how these impact their teaching practices have not been investigated in the Ukrainian education context, which has always been multilingual. The purpose of the article is to share and discuss the results of a quantitative study designed to investigate Ukrainian teacher beliefs in learning English and whether these beliefs are reflected in teaching practices. Data were collected using an online questionnaire administered to 73 English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers from 12 Ukrainian universities. The research questions were ascertained using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation analysis. The collected insights helped to identify areas that require a more careful consideration in the multilingual education in Ukraine. The outcomes reveal complex and uneven relationships between teacher multilingual beliefs and the implementation of multilingual practices in EFL classrooms in Ukraine, with discrepancies in their perceptions and practices. The main finding suggests that the majority of Ukrainian language teachers have a favorable perception of multilingualism, yet they lack the required expertise and confidence to effectively build on their students' linguistic resources in teaching English. In addition, there are some critical gaps in teacher understanding of fundamental concerns about multilingualism. Suggestions will be made for a scenario-based approach to a teacher professional development course.

Why do Mandarin speakers code-switch? A case study of conversational code-switching in China

Multilingualism is becoming increasingly common worldwide, with multilingual studies becoming more popular and accelerating interpersonal language contacts; however, it remains controversial and ambiguous in China. The current study aims to explore code-switching (CS) patterns and factors among Mandarin-dominated mainland Chinese speakers and investigate multilingual development in China through CS, as it is a multilingual practice. Conversational analysis was conducted to analyse daily interactions in short videos posted online, categorise language varieties and frequencies, identify CS patterns, and examine the factors influencing CS patterns. The results revealed that foreign languages and dialects other than Mandarin were spoken by Mandarin-dominated speakers. Three of four CS patterns were also pinpointed regarding language practices in China. Insertion was the most predominant pattern, followed by backflagging and alternation. The CS patterns employed by Mandarin-dominated mainland Chinese speakers were influenced primarily by participant-related factors, followed by linguistic-related factors, sociopsychological factors, convenience, and situational factors. The prevalence of the insertional CS pattern and the influence of personal factors suggest that China’s Mandarin-speaking community is in an early phase of multilingual development.

„... dass sich halt keiner ausgeschlossen fühlt.“ Wahrnehmungen von und Einstellungen zur Verwendung nicht-deutscher Erstsprachen im Unterricht

Abstract This article examines perceptions of and attitudes towards the use of non-German languages in Austrian schools from the perspective of students and teachers. By differentiating between teachers, students with exclusively German L1 and students with a non-German L1, different perspectives on code-switching in group work situations are examined. For this purpose, data was collected via online questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions between students. The results show that switching to another language in group work settings is perceived as inappropriate, in particular by those students who have no competence in a language other than German. Moreover, they associate switching with poorer performance in class and interpret the use of a language other than German in class to be antagonistic or talking behind the back of people who do not speak that language (“gossiping”). In contrast, – and contrary to the assumption that they evaluate language switches in the classroom more negatively due to stricter normative views – teachers show a consistently more positive perception of code switching behaviour and its multilingual speakers. It can be concluded from the findings that multilingualism in the school context and its overall benefits should not only be addressed in teacher training, but that it would also be useful to raise students’ awareness of multilingual practices.

(Re)countering multilingualism and refugee-background students in Australian compulsory education

Compared with nations around the world, Australia has one of the highest rates of refugee resettlement per capita. Approximately 40 per cent of newly arrived refugees in Australia in 2018–19 were under the age of 18 and close to 90 per cent spoke a language other than English. Given that education is compulsory until the age of 16 in most states and territories of Australia, young people labelled as refugee-background students (RBSs) are tasked with navigating the English-only education system, in which their multilingualism is often viewed as a barrier; however, there are increasing calls for research to focus on the positive, affirmative practices of RBSs through a strengths-based approach in education, to counter a ‘damage-centred’ and deficit discourse. Thus, this article presents a systematic literature review of studies conducted in Australia with RBSs between 2010 and 2022. Specifically, this review explores the strengths-based multilingual practices of RBSs in compulsory education in Australia. Inspired by RefugeeCrit theory, we seek to highlight strengths-based examples of RBSs multilingual practices as examples of counter-narratives to the prevailing deficit discourse, while remaining attentive to issues of trauma, agency and multilingualism.

Redefining Learning and Development at the Nexus of Home, School, and Community: When Children’s Cultural Knowledge Comes to School

Young children bring rich social, cultural, and political knowledge to school, cultivated in their homes and communities. This knowledge, ranging from household skills to multilingual practices, is often marginalized in schools that value different norms. Drawing from ethnographic studies in Illinois and New York kindergarten classrooms, this article explores how children’s home and community knowledge informs their school experiences. I argue against the false dichotomy between school and out-of-school learning, highlighting the importance of listening to children’s perspectives to co-create meaningful curricular inquiries and broaden our social imagination.

A Linguistic Analysis of Idiomatic Expressions in Town Bemba: A Systematic Functional Linguistic

Idioms, as linguistic expressions, convey meanings that go beyond the literal interpretation of words. They are deeply rooted in historical and cultural contexts and are widely utilized by language speakers to effectively communicate specific messages. These expressions have diverse origins, including historical events, folklore, mythology, and popular culture, and they form an integral part of daily communication among Bemba speakers. In recent times, urban speakers of Town Bemba have developed idioms that reflect modern life and are associated with multilingual practices and shared experiences. This study aims to examine the nature of Town Bemba idioms as spoken in the Copperbelt province in Zambia. The study is guided by aspects of the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) model and the concept of recontextualization in analyzing the nature of idiomatic expressions used in Town Bemba. The study collected idioms from 20 purposively selected speakers of Town Bemba for oral interviews. The data were descriptively examined to unpack the conveyed meanings and the nature and form of the idioms in Town Bemba. The findings suggest several linguistic processes that give rise to idiomatic expressions, including linguistic coining, blending, and recontextualization of meaning. Additionally, the study demonstrates how multilingualism is used as a resource in forming non-traditional idiomatic expressions, incorporating linguistic features from different language sources. The study further shows how socio-cultural context and shared experiences of the speakers play a key role in determining the meaning associated with idioms.

Complementing Home Languages and English First Additional Language through Non-Academic Activities

This study explored how to harness non-academic activities to enhance the complementarity between learners’ home languages and English first additional language (EFAL) in the Intermediate Phase in South Africa. A qualitative approach was used in this study. For this qualitative study, eight Intermediate Phase teachers were selected as respondents. Each teacher was engaged in a telephone interview because we found this data collection tool less time-consuming, allows for the recording of the conversation, and saves on transport costs. These eight teachers, two each from four primary schools, were referred to as T1 to T8 to maintain their anonymity and uphold confidentiality. The findings indicate that using non-academic strategies and activities such as songs, co-curricular activities, name building, school assemblies and announcements, bilingual/multilingual teachers and non-teaching personnel help learners realise the complementarity between their home languages and the English language. The other findings comprise inclusive strategies that could benefit EFAL learners in using their home languages to understand EFAL, namely the use of newsletters and telephone calls in the vernacular, Heritage Day and Cultural Week and school trips to cultural villages. The study has shown that in globalised multilingual learning settings, there is a need to embrace non-academic activities that the school and relevant stakeholders can use to promote the complementarity between learners’ home languages and English first additional language. The study also recommends hiring bi/multilingual teachers to schools to enhance multilingual practices in teaching and learning English first an additional language. Keywords: English first additional Language; Multilingualism; Multilingual Education; Linguistic Diversity

Differentiation of ‘multilingual children’ in early education through knowledge of family language practices

ABSTRACT In this study, the notion of ‘multilingual children’ is differentiated by problematizing overgeneralizations or homogenizing of children with potentially different experiences of language(s). The aim is to generate knowledge of how minority language–speaking children use their language(s) outside the education system through teacher–parent dialogue. The terms family language(s) and minority/majority language(s) are argued to capture the situated character of language(s) and to avoid labelling children’s languages from an outside perspective. The analysis conceived as abductive is based on 33 dialogues. The findings imply the children participating in multilingual practices including English as an additional language, and the opposite: the children are rather monolingual in their language use. A conclusion drawn is that being a multilingual child/parent in early childhood education in a monolingual society can be understood in terms of how the space for participation is facilitated and countered.

It’s an Imagined Fuṣḥatopia: Teacher Language Ideologies and Multilingual Practices in Arabic Heritage Learning in the United States

Abstract This article examines teacher ideologies and multilingual practices in teaching Arabic as a heritage language in the USA. Using indexicality and its nexus to language ideologies, it identifies the key index values assigned to Standard Arabic (SA) and how these shape teacher positioning for teaching Arabic heritage. The article also analyzes the extent to which these ideologies are congruent or incongruent with their classroom practices. The findings of in-depth semi-structured interviews showed teachers’ veneration of SA with representations that index ‘perfection’, ‘majesty’, ‘purism’, and ‘generosity’. Although teachers seemed tolerant of using Arabic dialects strategically, their overall positioning supported teaching SA and minimized teaching dialects. Drawing on data from a larger corpus of around 25 hr of classroom video recordings, teachers showed ubiquitous multilingual and multidialectal practices in classroom discourse. With its dual focus on language ideologies and practices, this article enriches the discussion about the idealization of SA (fuṣḥatopia) as restricting the potential of Arabic dialects as important resources for learning SA. It also disrupts the linguistic hierarchy between SA and the dialects.

Emergent Pragmatic Conventions in Spoken ELF Corpus Data: Micro-Diachronic Analysis of Inclusive vs. Exclusive Multilingual Practices

This article examines multilingual practices as an example of emergent pragmatic conventions in three Transient International Groups (TIGs) using spoken English as a lingua franca (ELF) from the Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE). The analysis combines principles of corpus linguistics and conversation analysis by adopting a new approach for the micro-diachronic analysis of spoken interaction. Quantitative and qualitative evidence and micro-diachronic visualizations of VOICE transcripts show how the three groups examined interactively develop group-specific multilingual practices. The analysis reveals that the three groups have different preferences in this respect. While two groups develop inclusive multilingual practices in the course of their interaction, one group shows a tendency to use multilingual practices exclusively, primarily in side sequences. In addition to multilingual use, the presence or absence of metalinguistic discussions about language (and languages) plays a role for creation of shared transcultural territory and the formation of group identity. These processes are indicative of how unacquainted multilingual speakers negotiate and develop pragmatic conventions more generally.

Family language policy in a transnational family living in Finland: multilingual repertoire, language practices, and child agency.

Each multilingual transnational family is unique and thus deserves to be carefully studied in terms of its family language policy (FLP). Speaker-centered approaches can provide a deeper understanding of linguistic diversity in a multilingual setting. The studied Russian-Italian family is raising a multilingual boy (8:2) in Finland. The multilingual repertoire includes Russian, Italian, Finnish, English, and Hebrew. In this case-study, an ethnographic approach is used to explore the multilingual family repertoire by presenting their lived experiences and language practices. I discuss the FLP and child's active role in shaping the family's linguistic practices (child agency). The following methods were combined: semi-structured interviews, language background surveys, written diary entries, self-recordings of interactions in the family, and a language portrait that depicts the child's multilingual repertoire. The interviews and other recordings were transcribed manually. The following research questions guided the study: (1) How do the family members describe their FLP? (2) How does the FLP evolve through everyday interactions (language practices)? (3) How does the child exercise his agency in the family setting? The results reveal that the family's language practices follow predominantly an one person-one language (OPOL) strategy; consequently, the child speaks a different language with each parent. However, the analysis of the language ideologies reveals positive attitudes toward both multilingualism and all the languages in the family's repertoire, which explains the multilingual practices having multiplicity and unexpectedness. FLP is shaping the family language practices. Evidence of language hierarchy can be explained by a number of family-external and family-internal social factors.

Understanding Chinese international students’ language ideologies and multilingual practices in English-medium instruction programs in Germany

Analysed through the lens of language ideology, this qualitative study delved into the multilingual experiences of Chinese international students in English-medium instruction (EMI) studies in Germany. Drawing on semi-structured interview data from 16 Chinese postgraduate students in an international university, this study probed into these students’ language ideologies related to English, German, and Mandarin Chinese. Data analysis showed that their language ideologies were complex and intertwined with academic success, social integration, future employment, solidarity within ethnic groups, and widening local networks. It was also found that the participants’ multiple while often conflicting language ideologies were pivotal in shaping their investment in and usage of particular languages. The findings of this study contribute to a deeper understanding of the diversity inherent in international students’ language ideologies in EMI and have significant implications for the internationalisation of multilingual environments in higher education (HE).

Sharing interview questions in advance: Methodological considerations in applied linguistics research

Abstract Interviews serve as a prominent methodological tool in applied linguistics and beyond, allowing researchers to explore participants’ experiences, ideologies and beliefs. Yet, the extent to which interview questions are shared in advance with participants is often unclear, although this methodological decision can substantially shape responses and subsequent reflections. Some advantages of sharing interview questions in advance include enhanced participant engagement and reflexivity, reduced interview anxiety, and more thoughtful responses. Conversely, the practice may engender risks such as participant bias, and predetermined answers. This reflective piece addresses this underexplored aspect by first discussing methodological considerations of such a practice, including a brief review of existing practices in research on language teacher ideologies and beliefs. Second, it considers ethical dimensions entailed in such a practice. Additionally, this paper explores how six English teachers in Norway experienced having access to all interview questions in advance to prepare for interviews centred around their individual teaching beliefs about multilingualism and multilingual practices. The paper concludes by suggesting that sharing interview questions in advance can benefit both participants and enhance the quality of research.

Multilingual practices of Algerian EFL learners in digital environments: A functional approach

The recent academic discourse has been prominently centred on the scrutiny of the intricate relationship between language and emerging technologies. In this regard, the present study sets out to explore the multilingual practices of Algerian EFL learners in digital environments, taking students at Mouloud Mammeri University of Tizi-Ouzou as a case in point. The study targets three main objectives. First, it attempts to scrutinise the participants’ use of different languages to fulfil different communicative functions. Second, it seeks to bring to light their motives for making choices among their linguistic repertoire. Third, it delves into the utilization of English as a foreign language within virtual environments. This case study draws on a theoretical framework of the sociology of language choice from a functional specialisation perspective (Jacobson, 1960; Halliday et al., 1964; Appel & Muysken, 2005). To this end, the mixed-methods research is adopted. A questionnaire was designed to collect data, which were analysed using descriptive statistical techniques and interpretive analysis. Findings highlight participants’ subconscious language choice across different situations, indicating the transfer of their face-to-face communication skills to virtual contexts. Additionally, the findings suggest that social media platforms have a beneficial effect on the adoption of English within digital learning settings.

Diversity and Standards in Writing for Publication in the Age of AI—Between a Rock and a Hard Place

Abstract Research communities across disciplines recognize the need to diversify and decolonize knowledge. While artificial intelligence-supported large language models (LLMs) can help with access to knowledge generated in the Global North and demystify publication practices, they are still biased toward dominant norms and knowledge paradigms. LLMs lack agency, metacognition, knowledge of the local context, and understanding of how the human language works. These limitations raise doubts regarding their ability to develop the kind of rhetorical flexibility that is necessary for adapting writing to ever-changing contexts and demands. Thus, LLMs are likely to drive both language use and knowledge construction towards homogeneity and uniformity, reproducing already existing biases and structural inequalities. Since their output is based on shallow statistical associations, what these models are unable to achieve to the same extent as humans is linguistic creativity, particularly across languages, registers, and styles. This is the area where key stakeholders in academic publishing—authors, reviewers, and editors—have the upper hand, as our applied linguistics community strives to increase multilingual practices in knowledge production.

Multilingualism and native speakerism in academic journals’ language policies: Exploring a potential power of applied linguistics journals in promoting equitable publishing practices

Abstract Multilingualism in the context of academic publishing involves beliefs and actions manifested through publications in multiple languages. However, a systematic analysis of how academic journals practice multilingualism has been scant. Therefore, the present study analyzed how indexed journals of applied linguistics promote and practice multilingualism following their scopes and language policies (LPs). Initially, 67 journals underwent screening based on their “aims and scope,” resulting in 11 journals that actively promoted multilingualism. Employing a critical discourse analysis (CDA) framework, the main analysis focused on the assumptions embedded within the journals’ LPs. The findings indicated an incongruity between the journals’ stated commitment and their practices of multilingualism. Specifically, all the journals mandated submissions exclusively in English with implicit biases toward native speakerism. The study underscores the need for a collective effort within and beyond the applied linguistics community to address linguistic biases and for more equitable and inclusive academic publishing practices.