Multilingual Language Policy Research Articles

“Because guess what? I don’t even want to speak English”: English as an obstacle for the development of multilingualism at a South African institution

AbstractSouth Africa immediately springs to mind as the epitome of multilingual language policies. In fact, its Constitution granted official status to 11 languages in 1996, and the Language Policy in Higher Education passed by the Ministry of Education in 2002 required universities to develop and use the indigenous official languages as academic languages, in addition to Afrikaans and English. With this multilingual milieu in mind, this study aimed at giving students voice in an attempt to unveil their language ideologies and attitudes by analysing their views on multilingualism and the use of English as main medium of instruction. Eleven focus groups with a total of 30 university students from different degrees at Stellenbosch University (SU) were organized to delve into four main issues: students’ perceptions on the university’s multilingual language policy; the actual use of the three official languages (Afrikaans, English and Xhosa) at SU; the impact of the use of English as the main medium of instruction; and the implementation of translanguaging practices. Despite the multilingual language policy of SU, our results reveal that there is a neatly established language hierarchy, where English reigns supreme at the top of the pyramid, followed by Afrikaans, while Xhosa remains at the base. Therefore, the preponderance of English as the language of academia only contributes to consolidating it as a strong identity factor in our interviewees’ multilingual identities, to the extent that Xhosa home language speakers disavow their own language in the academic domain.

Students’ Perceived Language Competence and Attitudes Towards Multilingualism at a South African University

South Africa is well-known for the implementation of multilingual language policies at various educational levels which are upheld by its Constitution. Higher education institutions in the country strive to comply with the call to bolster multilingualism, but the number of research studies that have focused on students’ language proficiency and language attitudes is remarkably low. To analyse these issues, the current study relied on a questionnaire that was filled out by 789 university students from an institution whose language policy promotes the use of three languages, namely Afrikaans, English, and Xhosa. The statistical analyses performed revealed that English proficiency is perceived as high and attitudes towards this language are very favourable; however, this is not the case with Afrikaans and, above all, Xhosa, which was not well known by the majority of students at the university and attitudes towards it were far from positive.

Parental ideologies in multilingual Family Language Policies in the Basque Autonomous Community (Spain)

The study of Family Language Policy (FLP) with a minority language has most often focused on the policies on the minority language within the framework of the hegemonic position of a majority language. This article, however, takes the view that a multilingual approach is needed to better understand parental decisions in their FLPs when a foreign language is also present in the education of their children. The data presented in this article is based on a PhD research project which studies the FLPs of Basque parents living in a mostly Spanish-speaking area of the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC) and whose children attend a Basque-medium school with early introduction of English as the L3. Results show that their ideological positioning in relation to Basque, the different values attached to each of their children’s languages, as well as their ideas about multilingualism determine to a great extent their FLPs. Whilst all parents support Basque and positively value learning English, some differences have been identified: Basque is prioritised above all by the most activist parents, who establish an iron-cast hierarchy among languages; English has been found to have a clear value and function, but its place in this hierarchy varies; and in all cases, Spanish is considered to be guaranteed and not requiring special ad hoc strategies. The study confirms the ideological positioning in relation to the minority language as a key factor in minority language FLPs, but also shows the impact of ideas about multilingual upbringing in their decisions, their expectations, and the degree of satisfaction or frustration with results.

On Epistemology in Researching the Teaching and Learning of Literacy, Literature, and the Language Arts

Yonas Mesfun Asfaha is an associate professor at Asmara College of Education in Eritrea, and recently he accepted the role of acting dean of the College of Education. He is a well-known literacy scholar specializing in African literacies as well as multilingual language policy as it relates to education. Lydiah Kiramba is an associate professor at the University of Nebraska and is originally from Kenya. Her areas of expertise include multilingual and ESL education, language and literacy teaching and assessment, and bi/multiliteracy development. Lydiah Kiramba talked with Yonas Asfaha via Zoom during the spring/summer months of 2023 about epistemologies and ontologies that have significantly influenced his work.

Focusing on education through multilingual language policy in South African schools

Abstract Even though multilingual education has been in existence for a long time, the new era has brought another contestation around this educational substitute. Multilingual education which is often realized through multilingual language policy seems to be the best way to prepare future generations to participate in constructing democratic societies in and intercultural world. South Africa is no exception to this development. The language policy and governance in the schooling system of South Africa cannot be seen in isolation from that of the rest of the African continent and the world. This article disinters the extent to which the bodies responsible for the governing of schools in South Africa can formulate and implement language policies that serve the demographic language interest of societies that they serve. This article contextualizes the rights-based approach through fostering a deeper understanding of how different participants and role players in the education system can form the links between rights and participation with a view to bringing about change in language policy formulation and implementation in schools.

Language Attitudes and Policy Preferences: Insights From International Scholarship Applicants to Hungarian Universities

Abstract This study examined the attitudes of individuals seeking scholarships to study abroad, exploring whether their views on languages and language policy models vary based on gender, study programs, and countries. An online survey was administered to approximately 130 Hungarian government scholarship applicants from diverse nations. Statistical methods were employed to analyze responses, revealing variations and correlations between demographic and attitudinal variables. Participants expressed preferences for multilingual and monolingual language policies, aligning with their attitudes. The findings indicate that most participants pursued language learning with instrumental motivation, aiming to achieve educational and career objectives. Most participants expressed a desire for a multilingual language policy model in their home countries. While many embraced the proposal to adopt English as the medium of instruction, others maintained a critical perspective, acknowledging both the positive and negative impacts of English and multilingualism. Additionally, participants underscored the significance of preserving native languages in their respective countries.

Sweden’s multilingual language policy through the lens of Turkish-heritage family language practices and beliefs

AbstractThis study explores the language maintenance efforts of Turkish heritage-speaker families in Sweden and their relation to state-level language policy from three angles. First, Swedish mainstream language ideology is described as it manifests in legislation, language policy and mother-tongue tuition. Then, the language practices of the families of 105 Turkish/Swedish children (age four to seven) are characterised via a questionnaire survey. This is complemented by findings from a follow-up study two years later, where ten of the families participated in interviews and home observations. Parents preferred to speak Turkish and wanted their child to learn and speak Turkish alongside Swedish. Another common denominator was the children’s early, extensive preschool attendance. Parent-child interaction was predominantly Turkish, although second-generation parents raised in Sweden reported higher uses of the majority language Swedish. Exposure to Swedish increased over time due to schooling, sibling interaction and media use, but third-generation children still spoke Turkish to a considerable degree. In their heritage-language maintenance efforts, many parents enlisted the support of grandparents, mother-tongue tuition, and literacy activities. Parents generally considered Turkish and Swedish equally important and showed low levels of anxiety regarding their children’s bilingualism, unlike what has been reported in studies of the same ethnolinguistic group in other national settings. The interviews revealed that parents who consulted Swedish health professionals and teachers were advised to speak and support the heritage language (Turkish) and maximise exposure to it in the home. Whilst unusual from an international perspective, this is in line with the official multilingual language ideology in Sweden.

The Perceived Importance of Language Skills in Europe—The Case of Swedish Migrants in France

In a European context, where member states of the European Union share a common language policy, multilingualism and foreign language (FL) learning are strongly promoted. The goal is that citizens learn two FLs in addition to their first language(s) (L1). However, it is unclear to what extent the multilingual policy is relevant in people’s lives, at a time when the English language is established as a lingua franca. This survey-based study contributes insights into the relevance of the EU multilingual policy in an intra-European migration context, by focusing on Swedish migrants (n = 199) in France, who are L1 speakers of Swedish. We investigated the perceived importance of skills in FL French, FL English, and L1 Swedish, for professional and personal life. The quantitative analyses showed that participants perceive skills in French and in English to be equally important for professional life, whereas skills in Swedish were perceived to be less important. For personal life, skills in French were perceived as the most important, followed by skills in English, and then Swedish. In conclusion, the European multilingual language policy appears to be reflected in Europeans’ lives, at least in the case of Swedish migrants in France.

Teacher Agency in Multilingual Education Policy in an Islamic Boarding School in Indonesia

The issue of the role of teacher agency in teacher professional development and school reform has increased significantly over the last decade. This article explores teacher agency in multilingual education policy in an Islamic Boarding School context and how they translated multilingual language policy into their class. Research on teacher agency within multilingual language policies has been widely conducted in public schools in many countries, but in Indonesia, the topic is relatively under-researched. Indonesia has an educational model born from local wisdom and applies multilingualism for student competence, namely Islamic boarding schools. This case exploratory study takes data from 3 teachers from various subjects such as (English, Religion, and Biology) at an Islamic boarding school at the same level as senior high school. Thematic analysis is applied to analyze the phenomenon regarding the multilingual education policy. This study reveals that teachers as agents in multilingual education policies run classes based on beliefs and abilities. Data was collected by interviewing teachers as agents in implementing multilingual education policies. The implication of this research is to provide a reference for education practitioners in adjusting to the implementation of multilingual education.

An ethnographic study of multilingual language policy localization with a focus on the resolution of communication problems in international Non-governmental Organizations (INGOs)

Taking the China Office of an international Non-governmental Organization (INGO) as its site of study, this article analyzed how an international multilingual language policy was localized by focusing on the solving of communication problems. It was found that overt and covert language policies work together to form a talent pool of potential language broker and language node, who functioned in solving communication problems in planned and unplanned scenarios. The emergence of language broker and language node in INGOs demonstrates on one hand, the exercise of individual and institutional agency in solving communication problems; on the other hand, the interaction of language policy at different layers (international-national-institutional) in shaping individual’s language practice. The article contributes to the study of language policy in post-modern era by providing a conceptualization of language policy localization process that centers around solving communication problems in INGO work places.

The Relationship between Portuguese and Indigenous Languages in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries: An Existential Sociolinguistics Perspective

Abstract
 
 This study analyzes the relationship between Portuguese and indigenous or regional and national languages in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). It proposes a multilingual language policy and the implementation of the political legitimacy of linguistic minority rights (PLLMR) as a demonstration of a decolonized treatment of languages other than Portuguese (LOTP) in the community. Using the theoretical framework of existential sociolinguistics and the method of philosophical reflection, this study addresses the question of how can CPLP implement multilingual policy in its governmental processes and sustain its Lusophone international politico-economic and sociocultural organization identity. In conclusion, it argues that the implementation of multilingual policy will demonstrate a decolonized governmental attitude, a sustainable existential intercultural mindset (SEIM), and a global intercultural citizenship in fostering existential justice rather than an anti-humanist governance or what I call econotechnocracy.

Multilingual family language policy in monolingual Australia: multilingual desires and monolingual realities

Multilingual family language policy in monolingual Australia: multilingual desires and monolingual realities

Linguistic plurality in context

Educational objectives and research have moved from a “monolingual bias” towards a multilingual perspective in comprehending the complex nature of multiple language acquisition. This shift has been echoed at an institutional level, with supranational bodies such as the European Union and the Council of Europe promoting multilingualism in and through education. A similar dynamic has emerged in Ireland, where there has been a move away from a “bilingual bias” towards a focus on multilingualism. While Irish educational policies have indeed shifted to support multiple language acquisition at school, obstacles remain regarding students’ ability to harness experiences with different languages. This article examines the nature of these obstacles and identifies their impact on learning French as a third language through quantitative and qualitative data gathered in both English- and Irish-medium schools. Questionnaire data provide insights into barriers to forging multilingual links, while interview data focus on specific examples of strategy transfer between languages and the emergence of metalinguistic awareness. Our findings, along with research and policy initiatives at European and Irish levels, are subsequently discussed in order to identify potential opportunities for supporting multilingual teaching practices and language policy in the Irish context and beyond.

Influences on Teachers’ Use of the Prescribed Language of Instruction: Evidence from Four Language Groups in the Philippines

In 2009 the Philippines introduced a mother tongue-based multilingual education language policy requiring the “mother tongue” as the language of instruction (LOI) in kindergarten through grade 3. Using teacher classroom language data collected from four LOI groups in 2019, we compared the frequency of teachers’ use of the target LOI in different contexts, including urban versus rural classrooms, classrooms with relatively homogeneous student language backgrounds versus more heterogeneous classrooms, and classrooms with materials in the target language versus classrooms without. We also examined language usage against characteristics of the teacher populations, including language background, years of experience, training, and beliefs about the best language for initial literacy. The results strongly suggest that the most influential levers for increasing teacher usage of a designated LOI in these contexts are ensuring that teachers are assigned to schools where the LOI matches their own first language and providing teaching and learning materials in the target LOI, especially teacher’s guides. These two factors were more strongly and more consistently correlated with teacher use of the LOI than all other variables examined. The linguistic homogeneity of the student population also showed a statistically significant though lower impact on teacher language usage.

The ambivalent role of Urdu and English in multilingual Pakistan: a Bourdieusian study.

Pakistan, one of the eight countries comprising South Asia, has more than 212.2 million people, making it the world’s fifth most populous country after China, India, USA, and Indonesia. It has also the world’s second-largest Muslim population. Eberhard et al. (Ethnologue: languages of the world, SIL International, 2020) report 77 languages used by people in Pakistan, although the only two official languages are Urdu and English. After its Independence from the British colonial rule in 1947, it took much deliberation for the country to make a shift from its monolingual Urdu orientation to a multilingual language policy in education in 2009. This entailed a shift from the dominant Urdu language policy for the masses (and English exclusively reserved for elite institutions), to a gradual and promising change that responded to the increasing social demand for English and for including regional languages in the curriculum. Yet English and Urdu dominate the present policy and exclude regional non-dominant languages in education that themselves are dynamic and unstable, and restructured continually due to the de facto multilingual and plurilingual repertoire of the country. Using Bourdieu’s (Outline of a theory of practice Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1977a, The economics of linguistic exchanges. Soc Sci Inform 16:645–668, 1977b, The genesis of the concepts of habitus and field. Sociocriticism 2:11–24 1985, Language and symbolic power Polity Press, Cambridge, 1991) conceptualization of habitus, this study analyzes letters to the editor published between 2002–2009 and 2018–2020 in a leading English daily of Pakistan. The analysis unveils the linguistic dispositions that are discussed in the letters and their restructuring through market forces, demonstrating a continuity between the language policy discourse and public aspirations. The findings also indicate the ambivalences towards Urdu and English in relation to nationalistic ideologies, modernity and identity.

Prospects and Challenges of Bilingual Education in the Light of Pakistan’s Language Policy

This research study explores prospects and challenges of bilingual education in the light of language policy of Pakistan. It directs the scholars and policymakers to revisit the notion of language and norms of traditional bilingual education. However, the researcher brings in light that translanguaging as a particular model facilitates for understanding dynamic multilingualism to promote social justice to languages and their speakers. The implementation of this model is viable in both theory and practice. The issue of monoglossic model of bilingual education in Pakistan is yet to be dealt with. Moreover, the researcher employed qualitative empirical method and used secondary data from previous studies to investigate the problem. Additionally, the findings reveal that the subtractive language policy, linguistic hegemony, politicians’ monolingual politics are challenges to the dynamic bilingual education. On the other hand, multilingual reality and its practice, speakers’ multilingual repertoire, transcultural interaction of students are important prospects of dynamic bilingual education policy in Pakistan. The study also highlights the research gap in Pakistani bilingual classrooms from the latest approach of translanguaging and dynamic model of bilingualism which can direct a multilingual language policy of Pakistan.

Main Challenges of EMI at the UCLM: Teachers’ Perceptions on Language Proficiency, Training and Incentives

English-medium instruction (EMI) has become commonplace in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Spain and in many other countries, being implemented as a strategy to increase the competitiveness and attractiveness of universities at the international level. The present article investigates the stances of lecturers involved in various internationalization programmes in regard to the challenges that EMI inception and implementation entails, such as language and content integration, English proficiency of teachers and students, teachers’ drives, teacher training needs and institutional support, among other issues. To gain a more comprehensive insight into the development of EMI, data were collected by means of semi-structured interviews with three separate groups of lecturers: (i) EMI practitioners, (ii) lecturers interested in EMI and (iii) lecturers from the Department of Modern Languages, experts in second language acquisition (SLA) and bilingual education. The results showed that the implementation of EMI at the University of Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM) is still in its infancy and there are several areas for improvement such as (i) the approval of a multilingual language policy that includes a specific and legally-binding protocol for lecturer recruitment and commitment in the programme, and (ii) the design of a more comprehensive teacher training plan offering accreditation to enter EMI and supporting effective implementation by means of in-service courses.

Multilingual language policy discourses and superdiversity at the peripheries: exploring language policy and practice in Eritrea

ABSTRACT Based on critical perspectives where normative and essentialist perceptions of language and ethnicity in policy discourses are challenged, and where the lack of attention to forms of social uses of language are highlighted, this paper discusses the limitations of even the most progressive pluralist language policy to capture the cultural and linguistic ‘diversification of diversity’ in Eritrea, a country in East Africa. The language policy in the country embraces all the languages of the country and promotes their use in education, mass media, provision of legal services, etc. Policy documents mention the equality of the nine languages. However, the presumed number of languages and, to some extent, their naming reflect a persistent colonial and missionary legacy, echoing the argument of some sociolinguists that languages in Africa are the creation of colonialists or missionaries. Based on insights from recent sociolinguistic and ethnographic studies on diversity, language and language use, this paper problematizes the notion of language, the naming of languages and their enumeration to highlight the limits of multilingual policy discourses to capture the superdiversity in countries of the global south, even within pluralistic language policy contexts such as the one in Eritrea.

An appraisal of bilingual language policy implementation in South African higher education

The demand for promoting bilingual and multilingual language policies in African universities can be regarded as a decolonial force for driving pedagogical changes in teaching and learning. In South Africa, there have been polemic debates particularly on the need to include African languages as alternatives to English. This article intervenes in the increasing tensions about language policy implementation in tertiary institutions. The study utilises a qualitative methodology that blends secondary and primary data collected from semi-structured interviews and questionnaires from two campuses (Howard and Pietermaritzburg) of the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN). Findings reveal that the UKZN academic staff and students have mixed feelings about the implementation of the bilingual language policy. The authors argue for the need to balance the use of African and non-African languages for teaching and learning. The study ends with a highlight of the challenges related to this Africanising project through language policies by emphasising key tenets for strengthening language policy implementation in South Africa.

Characteristics, issues, and future directions in Chinese multicultural education: a review of selected research 2000–2018

Multicultural education has aroused extensive international attention and has been promoted by a large body of advocates due to its significance for the achievement of social equity in education. Such worldwide concern, therefore, calls for collaborative work, with contributions from diverse sociocultural contexts. This paper reviews 179 research studies on Chinese multicultural education (CME) from 2000 to 2018. Six interrelated categories were identified: (1) theoretical discourses on CME; (2) multicultural curricula and instruction; (3) students’ perspectives in multicultural contexts; (4) multilingual education and language policy; (5) citizenship education; and (6) multicultural teaching and teacher education. Each category was thoroughly examined and the limitations were discussed. Also, the paper identified various issues that future research needs to address, such as broadening the concept of multicultural education, the academic communication between China and the West, and the need for empirical literature in English.