Multipath Distance Vector Routing Research Articles

Link stability based multipath routing and effective mobility prediction in cognitive radio enabled vehicular ad hoc network

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) provide a robust infrastructure for intelligent transportation system (ITS) applications. VANET communication involves vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure connections, primarily with roadside units (RSUs). Analyzing cognitive radio (CR)-VANET studies revealed two key performance issues: high energy consumption and latency. To address these challenges, we propose a novel approach: link stability and mobility prediction-based clustered CR-VANETs, known as LMCCR-VANET. LMCCR-VANET consists of four main components: CR-VANET construction, clustering model, speed-based mobility prediction, and link-based multipath routing. Initially, we establish cluster-based CR-VANETs to analyze and mitigate spectrum scarcity and power utilization problems in VANETs. Mobility prediction evaluates vehicle speed variations and predictions. Finally, employing link stability-based multipath routing (LSMR) in conjunction with the fuzzy interference model and ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector (AOMDV) routing protocol ensures stable and efficient routing. Experimental results showcase the superiority of LMCCR-VANET. It exhibits enhanced energy efficiency, delivery rates, reduced energy consumption, end-to-end latency, and routing overhead when compared to recent works such as SCCR-VANET, CFCR-VANET, and MMCR-VANET.

Arithmetic Optimization AOMDV Routing Protocol for FANETs.

Flying ad hoc networks (FANETs), composed of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), possess characteristics of flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and rapid deployment, rendering them highly attractive for a wide range of civilian and military applications. FANETs are special mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), FANETs have the characteristics of faster network topology changes and limited energy. Existing reactive routing protocols are unsuitable for the highly dynamic and limited energy of FANETs. For the lithium battery-powered UAV, flight endurance lasts from half an hour to two hours. The fast-moving UAV not only affects the packet delivery rate, average throughput, and end-to-end delay but also shortens the flight endurance. Therefore, research is urgently needed into a high-performance routing protocol with high energy efficiency. In this paper, we propose a novel routing protocol called AO-AOMDV, which utilizes arithmetic optimization (AO) to enhance the ad hoc on-demand multi-path distance vector (AOMDV) routing protocol. The AO-AOMDV utilizes a fitness function to calculate the fitness value of multiple paths and employs arithmetic optimization for selecting the optimal route for routing selection. Our experiments were conducted using NS3 with three evaluation metrics: the packet delivery ratio, network lifetime, and average end-to-end delay. We compare this algorithm to routing protocols including AOMDV and AODV. The results indicate that the proposed AO-AOMDV attained a higher packet delivery ratio, network lifetime, and lower average end-to-end delay.

Simulation of Elliptical Curve Cryptography in IPSec on Ad-Hoc Networks

Ad-hoc networks have gained significant attention in the realm of communication due to the proliferation of mobile and IoT devices and wireless networks. Ad hoc Networks offer a decentralized approach, where each node can function as a router and a terminal. Ensuring data safety and integrity in Ad hoc Networks remains a challenge, necessitating the use of robust security mechanisms. This research focuses on the simulation of Elliptical Curve Cryptography (ECC) in the IPsec protocol on ad-hoc networks. ECC, known for its strong security and smaller key sizes, provides an effective means of protecting data packets from potential attacks. The Ad hoc On Demand Multipath Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol is employed for secure data transmission in a Ad hoc Networks. The main objective is to maintain packet security in the face of hostile environments and active adversaries. Furthermore, the results obtained from the NS-2 simulator are compared with Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), and Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA). Evaluation metrics such as Quality of Service (QoS), average processing time, and average end-to-end delay are utilized. This study addresses the challenges faced by ad-hoc networks in an increasingly digital world. By exploring the implementation of ECC-based cryptography, it contributes to the development of secure communication protocols in ad-hoc networks. The findings offer insights into the efficacy of ECC in protecting data transmission and its comparative performance with other cryptographic techniques. Ultimately, this research aims to advance secure communication protocols, ensuring reliable data exchange in diverse applications and scenarios.

Hybrid security in AOMDV routing protocol with improved salp swarm algorithm in wireless sensor network

During these years the current trends shows a fast expansion in the field of wireless sensor network (WSN) based applications. Due to this much vulnerability are created and also coverage optimization becomes essential to improve overall performance. However, maximum of the model concentrates only on security or efficiency. In order to create a highly efficient protocol both concepts need to get concerted. So, we developed a protocol namely hybrid security in ad-hoc on-demand multipath distance vector (AOMDV) routing protocol with improved salp swarm algorithm (HSA-ISSA). This model is sub-divided into three sections. They are, wormhole attack and gray hole attack construction AOMDV protocol, improved salp swarm algorithm (SSA) model is used for weighted distance position updates which leads to improve the efficiency. And to secure the network from attacks we use hybrid security with the help of Diffie-Hellman key interchange algorithm and elliptic-curve cryptography (ECC) algorithm. During performance evaluation the proposed HS-ISSA protocol provide stable results in terms of message success rate (MSR), end to end delay (E2E_Delay), network throughput (NT), and average energy efficiency (AEE). Our HAS-ISSA protocol outperformed all the other earlier works by providing hybrid security, optimized coverage as well as energy efficiency to the wireless sensor networks.

Innovative Technique to Detect and Prevent Malicious Nodes in AOMDV against Blackhole Attacks in MANET for Increase the Network Efficiency

The Ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector (AOMDV) routing protocol is one type of reactive routing protocol used in MANET. It is designed on top of the AODV routing protocol, so it utilizes the features of the AODV protocol. The MANET is a wireless ad hoc network without any physical infrastructure; all nodes can be moved across the network, and connections are made between them as needed simply with the help of RREQ, RREP, and RERR packets. Because the network is dynamic, nodes can quickly join and depart anytime. So far, no security threats have been caused by this feature. The blackhole attack is one type of active and dangerous attack in MANET. In this attack, the attackers use the AOMDV flaw to demonstrate their bad intent, causing data loss and decreasing network performance. Many studies have been done on various detection and prevention methods to prevent blackhole attacks. But it still goes on. To improve network performance against black hole attacks, this study offers a dynamic threshold value with multiple paths technique approach on AOMDV; it will be demonstrated in Network Simulator 2.

A Multipath Local Route Repair Scheme for Bidirectional Traffic in an Airborne Network of Multibeam FDD Nodes

A directional airborne network consisting of nodes equipped with multibeam antennas is considered. These nodes use the frequency division duplex mode of communication. This allows formation of multiple routes between a pair of source and destination nodes, where every forward and reverse route completely overlaps. Each of these routes supports the bidirectional traffic. These routes are formed using the bidirectional ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector (BAOMDV) routing protocol. In this article, we propose a local route repair scheme, called BAOMDV-LR, when these routes break due to node mobility. The proposed route repair scheme preserves the overlapping and link-disjoint (or node-disjoint) characteristics of the routes, while reducing the need for expensive route rediscovery. The proposed scheme significantly improves the overall network performance for bidirectional traffic (in terms of packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, and routing overhead) as compared to the BAOMDV and other existing routing schemes, especially at higher node speeds and data rates.

Retraction Note to: Quality of service based ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector routing protocol in mobile ad hoc network

Retraction Note to: Quality of service based ad hoc on-demand multipath distance vector routing protocol in mobile ad hoc network

Wireless Body Area Routing Protocols Impact Analysis on Entity Mobility Models with Static Sink Node

The most important and emerging characteristic of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs), which differentiates them from other wired and wireless area networks, is mobility. Therefore, the routing protocols for WBAN are designed in such a way that they can deal with dynamic changes in topology and provide maximum throughput, packet delivery ratio, average end-to-end delay, and minimum energy consumption. Thus, achieving optimal values for every performance parameter becomes a big challenge. This work investigates the performance of three separate path discovery protocols, such as Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV), Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV), and Ad Hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector Routing protocol (AOMDV), for two different mobility models with a fixed-positioned sink. During experimentation, the AOMDV routing protocol achieves a high packet delivery ratio (PDR), average end-to-end delay, and throughput as compared to other routing protocols.

Trusted routing protocol for federated UAV ad hoc network

PurposeIn the final step, the trust model is applied to the on-demand federated multipath distance vector routing protocol (AOMDV) to introduce path trust as a foundation for routing selection in the route discovery phase, construct a trusted path, and implement a path warning mechanism to detect malicious nodes in the route maintenance phase, respectively.Design/methodology/approachA trust-based on-demand multipath distance vector routing protocol is being developed to address the problem of flying ad-hoc network being subjected to internal attacks and experiencing frequent connection interruptions. Following the construction of the node trust assessment model and the presentation of trust evaluation criteria, the data packet forwarding rate, trusted interaction degree and detection packet receipt rate are discussed. In the next step, the direct trust degree of the adaptive fuzzy trust aggregation network compute node is constructed. After then, rely on the indirect trust degree of neighbouring nodes to calculate the trust degree of the node in the network. Design a trust fluctuation penalty mechanism, as a second step, to defend against the switch attack in the trust model.FindingsWhen compared to the lightweight trust-enhanced routing protocol (TEAOMDV), it significantly improves the data packet delivery rate and throughput of the network significantly.Originality/valueAdditionally, it reduces the amount of routing overhead and the average end-to-end delay.

Reactive and Proactive Route Evaluation in MANET

Ad hoc networks are established in small local areas and need very low infrastructure. There is no centralized control system for data communication. Due to frequently changing the position of the nodes create so many challenging issues like throughput, data loss and increase the packet delivery fraction. In this paper, An Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector, Ad hoc On demand Multipath Distance Vector, and Multi‐path dynamic address routing protocols have been analyzed based on various data rates. The evaluation parameters are taken as: average throughput, average delay, packet delivery ratio, packet delivery fraction and latency. Implementation research work has been simulated on network simulator 2.35. It is analyzed that Ad hoc On demand Multipath Distance Vector routing protocol performs better in terms of packet delivery ratio and received packets as compared to Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector and Multi‐path dynamic address routing protocols.

Energy Efficient Routing Protocol in Sensor Networks Using Genetic Algorithm.

In this paper, we examine routing protocols with the shortest path in sensor networks. In doing this, we propose a genetic algorithm (GA)-based Ad Hoc On-Demand Multipath Distance Vector routing protocol (GA-AOMDV). We utilize a fitness function that optimizes routes based on the energy consumption in their nodes. We compare this algorithm with other existing ad hoc routing protocols including LEACH-GA, GA-AODV, AODV, DSR, EPAR, EBAR_BFS. Results prove that our protocol enhances the network performance in terms of packet delivery ratio, throughput, round trip time and energy consumption. GA-AOMDV protocol achieves average gain that is 7 to 22% over other protocols. Therefore, our protocol extends the network lifetime for data communications.

Link Reliable On-Demand Multipath Distance Vector Routing for Reliable Video Streaming in MANET

Background: Due to the generic feature of AOMDV, it is widely used in Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks such as the Internet which requires new challenges to deploy conversational real-time applications like VoIP (Voice over IP) and video conferencing. Objective: In AOMDV, the multiple routes between any source and destination pair are selected based on minimal hop count which does not ensure reliable video content delivery as the communicating nodes along the paths are prone to link failures and route breaks. Methods: To overcome such problems, the Link Reliable On-demand Multipath Distance Vector (LROMDV) is proposed by modifying the Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV). Results: The LROMDV uses an enhanced Cumulative Expected Transmission Count (enh-CETX) for selecting multiple routes between any source and destination pair to avoid link failures and route breaks in Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks. Conclusion: The performance of LROMDV on H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video streaming under both Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) and Enhanced Distributed Coordination Function (EDCF) using NS2.34 and Enhanced EvalVid framework is evaluated and the simulation result shows the effectiveness of LROMDV.

A trust‐based mechanism in multipath routing using Biogeography‐Shun Optimization

SummaryIn mobile ad hoc network, a group of mobile nodes interconnect with each other in an ad hoc manner without any centralized administration. Various applications are based on integrating mobile ad hoc network and cloud computing to enhance the processing and storing of mobile nodes. Cloud service providers provide mobile ad hoc network users access to applications and other mobile ad hoc network users. Implementing security mechanism for ad hoc routing can be a daunting task owing it its unique network traits. Blackhole attack found in the mobile ad hoc network takes place when malicious nodes attract data packets using a fresh destination route and drop the packets. In this work, a trust‐based routing that has a probability of a new packet forwarding is proposed to mitigate blackhole attacks. The ad hoc on‐demand multipath distance vector routing protocol is used in this work, which is based on the trust model that measures the trust of nodes and composes a decision, respectively. A novel optimization technique that has its basis in the Biogeography‐Shun Optimization algorithm is suggested for enhancing the multipath routing. Simulations demonstrate that the proposed method attains better performance by enhancing lifetime of network and packet delivery ratio and reducing end‐to‐end delay.

Elephant Herding Optimization Ad Hoc On-Demand Multipath Distance Vector Routing Protocol for MANET

Energy consumption always represents a challenge in the ad hoc networks which spurred the researchers to benefit from the bio-inspired algorithms and their fitness functions to evaluate nodes energy through the path discovery stage. In this paper we propose energy efficient routing protocol based on the well-known Ad Hoc On-Demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) routing protocol and a bio-inspired algorithm called Elephant Herding Optimization (EHO). In the proposed EHO-AOMDV the overall consumed energy of nodes is optimized by classifying nodes into two classes, while paths are discovered from the class of the fittest nodes with sufficient energy for transmission to reduce the probability of path failure and the increasing number of dead nodes through higher data loads. The EHO updating operator updates classes based on separating operator that evaluates nodes based on residual energy after each transmission round. Experiments were conducted using Ns-3 with five evaluation metrics routing overhead, packet delivery ratio, average energy consumption, end-to-end delay and number of dead nodes and four implemented protocols the proposed protocol, AOMDV and two bio-inspired protocols ACO-FDRPSO and FF-AOMDV. Results indicated that the proposed EHO-AOMDV attained higher packet delivery ratio with less routing overhead, average energy consumption and number of dead nodes over the state of art while in the end-to-end delay AOMDV has outperformed the proposed protocol.

Routing Protocol Based on Neighbor Interference Level for Mobile Wireless Networks

The mobile ad hoc network is a type of wireless network characterized by mobile nodes without a centralized administration. Frequent variations of the topology and the nature of the radio links have a negative impact on the stability of the links. Indeed, the link quality deteriorates rapidly and link breaks become frequent. To overcome these problems, new forms of routing protocols are used as the MultiPath routing. In addition, routing protocols require the knowledge of the nodes neighborhood to build and manage routes. The neighbor discovery process is performed by a Hello protocol. The Hello protocol typically involves several parameters such as the packet’s period; node’s transmit power, node’s position and node’s battery level. The purpose of this paper is to change the behavior of ad hoc On demand Multi-path Distance Vector (AOMDV) routing protocol by considering the density of the nodes as well as the interference of the neighboring nodes. This selection of paths goes through two stages. In the first step, we study the impact of the neighbor discovery process to select a set of paths having a minimum number of neighboring nodes to diminish contention problems and interference rate. In the second step, the Interference Ratio (IR) metric is used to select the paths in which the nodes are surrounded by a minimum of interference. We choose for our study two proposed approaches based on AOMDV routing protocol. The first is called AOMDV_neighbor and considers the density parameter as a path metric. The second is called AOMDV_neighbor_IR which considers the interference rate (IR) between each node and its neighborhood as a path metric. We evaluate the proposed routing protocols performance under various NS2 simulation scenarios in a shadowing environment.

Detection of Wormhole Attack and Secure Path Selection in Wireless Sensor Network

In Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), securable data transmission is one of the most challenges. During the transmission between the source and a destination node, routing information of the particular path may be misbehaved by the particular nodes which are known as wormhole nodes/attackers. The paths which include the wormhole nodes are known as wormhole attacked paths. For improving security in WSN, these wormhole attacked paths should be identified. To achieve this, wormhole attack detection method and optimal or secure path selection are presented in this paper. Initially, ‘K’ paths or multiple paths are generated between source and destination using Ad-hoc On demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) routing protocol. Then, the source node identifies the wormhole attacked path by verifying the Detection Packet (DP) and Feedback Packet (FP) from the destination. After detecting the wormhole attacked paths, the source node selects the optimal path among the attacker free paths using Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm. Simulation results show that the performance of the proposed approach improves energy efficiency and network lifetime of the network.

RETRACTED ARTICLE: Quality of Service based Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector Routing protocol in mobile ad hoc network

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are wireless networks that include many peer nodes. The node mobility in the MANETs leads to several issues like maintenance of paths, lifespan of the battery, safety, reliability and unpredictable link traits. All these in turn would adversely affect the network Quality of Service (QoS). In MANETs, a major role is played by the routing protocol for discovering as well as maintaining the paths. There are two types of routing: uni-path and multi-path. The MANET network can be made more reliable using the multipath routing protocol. The focus of this research is evaluating the multipath routing protocol for QoS. For better delivering of data, the Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) has improved methods. This maintains the QoS in terms of factors like MANET end-to-end delay, hop count and bandwidth. This work explores the evolutionary computation schemes for optimizing the routing. The discovery of QoS route in multi-constrained network is a complex problem, this is solved optimally using heuristic algorithms. In that, specifically used for intrusion detection programs in such challenging set ups would be Grammatical Evolution (GE). For finding out familiar threats in MANETs, the natural evolution-motivated GE scheme has been applied. The outcomes have shown that in MANETs, the proposed AOMDV-QoS schemes fulfill the Quality of Service requirements along with lesser delay and high reliability.

Composite Attribute Based Ad-hoc On Demand Multipath Distance Vector Routing Protocol (CAB-AOMDV)

In this paper composite attribute-based ad-hoc on demand multipath distance vector (CAB-AOMDV) routing protocol has been proposed. Composite attributes are used to select the optimized multiple path for transmitting data and determined what percentage of total data can be share by the specific path. Composite factor is the combination of two factors, one is drop and another is queue factor. The performance analysis is evaluated under various node densities. Using control-overhead (CO), normalized-routing-overhead and throughput performance of proposed CAB-AOMDV is compared with Risk factor-based Ad-hoc on demand multipath (RF-AOMDV) routing protocol, from where it is observed that performance of proposed CAB-AOMDV is outperform RF-AOMDV in respect of all scenario taken into considerations.

Comparative Study of Two Reactive Routing Protocols with Realistic Mobility Model

A Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) are dynamic wireless networks that can be formed without the need for any existing infrastructure in which each node can act as a host as well as a router. One of the main challenges of MANETs is the design of robust routing protocols that adapt to the frequent and randomly changing network topology. A variety of routing protocols have been proposed and several of them have been extensively simulated or implemented. In this study, we compare and evaluate the performance of two reactive routing protocols namely: The Ad-hoc On-Demand distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol, which is unipath and Ad-hoc On-Demand Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) routing protocol. We observed that the results of AODV significantly outperformed that of the AOMDV in most cases contrary to the report that AOMDV outperformed AODV, but concerning in the literature that the selection of the mobility model has a significant impact the performance of the routing protocol.

Hybrid Differential Evolution Based Probabilistic Model to Support Quality Aware Best Path Routing Scheme for Mobile Adhoc Networks

The Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) today represent a new system containing wireless mobile nodes to dynamically and freely organize the topologies of the network without having any communication infrastructure. Owing to the traits such as temporary topology and the absence of a proper centralized authority routing can be a very important issue faced by the ad hoc networks. This multipath routing algorithm has established various paths between the source node and its destination node thus spreading traffic load along various routes. This will be able to alleviate congestion of traffic on a particular path. Thus, the multipath routing algorithms were able to provide route resilience that ensured data transmission reliability. For the purpose of this work, there was a multipath routing scheme which is called the Ad hoc On-demand Multipath Distance Vector Routing (AOMDV) Protocol. This was proposed by means of employing a hybrid Fire Fly (FF) with Differential Evolution (DE) algorithm. This approach was able to achieve better, as well as, reciprocal advantages in a dynamic and hostile network situation. Thus, the proposed scheme of routing was a very powerful method to find effective solutions to MANET routing problems. The proposed method is a well-known probabilistic metaheuristic algorithm to improve the quality aware best path routing protocol. Simulation results indicate that the proposed method FF-DE achieves better performance than AOMDV and FF.