Mughal Empire Research Articles

AURANGZEBS APPROACH APPLIED IN THE MUGHAL MILITARY CAMPAIGN INVOLVING THE DECCAN REGION: A LITERATURE REVIEW

Aurangzeb (1658-1707) was the Mughal emperor who succeeded his father Shah Jahan after successfully defeating his siblings in his efforts to seize the throne of the Mughal Empire. He is known for his strict religious personality and adherence to Sunni beliefs, besides exercising a firm and disciplined leadership. Aurangzeb decided to launch a military campaign during his reign into the Deccan region with the intention of overthrowing the Bijapur and Golconda Sultanates. Aurangzeb decided to conquer the region as he had the experience of once being the Viceroy of Deccan and faced numerous conflicts that threatened the Mughal rule. Hence, Aurangzeb designed an approach to expand his power and deal with the problem. This study aims to conduct a literature review of Aurangzebs approach in the Mughal power expansion campaign into the Deccan region. This qualitative study adopted the historical study and content analysis methods for the data collection and analysis processes, particularly involving primary and secondary data sources. The literature review was divided into three main sections, namely the history and development of the Deccan region, the Mughal Empires relationship with the Deccan region and Aurangzebs political biography. Discussions of the three main themes of this literature review facilitates further research, specifically in identifying factors that influenced the expansion of the Mughal Empire into the Deccan region.

Evolution of Codified Criminal Laws in India: A Voyage from Colonialization to Decolonization

This research paper delves into the profound evaluation of criminal laws in Bharat from the Vedic era to the decolonization of criminal statutes. The narrative begins with evaluating the criminal justice system from the Vedic ages to today's new decolonized criminal laws in India. The paper scrutinizes the various time duration for evaluation of criminal laws in Bharat: Before the Vedic era (Vedas (Rig, Yajur, Sāma, and Atharva), Shrutis, Puranas, and many more), During the Vedic era (Dharamshastra and Arthshastra), Mughal period, British colonial period, and Decolonialization of criminal laws in India. The various objectives behind the decolonization of new criminal laws include Eradication of Colonial-Era law, Offence against the state, Modernization of the criminal justice system, Strengthening Accountability and Rule of Law, and Democratizing the Law. Understanding the evaluation of laws from the colonial era to the decolonization of criminal laws, importing critical legal changes brought under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS), Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), and Bharatiya Sakshya Act (BSA) in 2023, this study closely observes the backdrop, what inspires the law to launch such amendments and what subtleties result in these alterations. This historical analysis is taken up first that describes the colonial legacy of India's legal system, and how relics of archaic legislations are part of its system even today. With this background, the exam is placed against a backdrop of rising crime and changing characteristics of criminal behaviors occasioned by new technological breakthroughs that require all-around changes. The paper scrutinizes the supreme provisions of the BNSS towards replacing the archaic Code of Criminal Procedure, the BNS which is poised to replace the Indian Penal Code, and the BSA which is to replace the Evidence Act. This report will appraise the major changes in the number of sections that are incorporated into the new schemes, record digitalization, and the inevitable drift towards forensic science and collection of evidence.

Ptolemaic astronomy and its dissemination in the Islamic world, Europe, and Asia

Abstract The geometrical planetary models that the 2nd century Greek scholar Ptolemy introduced in his major astronomical work, the Almagest were highly influential for more than a millennium. This paper briefly describes the characteristics of these models and the way in which astronomical activities in the Islamic world developed on the basis of Ptolemy’s work. It then discusses three cases of transmission of Islamic astronomy to surrounding parts of the world, namely to China under the Mongolian Yuan dynasty (13th and 14th century), to India during the Mughal empire (c. 1730), where it was used together with the latest European astronomical tables and to Europe, where a mixture of early Indian and Ptolemaic astronomy that had reached the western Islamic world in the 10th century remained influential until the beginning of the Renaissance.

Women Education under the Reign of the Mughal Empire

In this communication, the education system of women during Mughal reign is presented. Throughout the Mughal era, women's status was tiered. In the Mughal era, women's education was regarded as less significant than that of males by both Muslims and Hindus. Studying Literature and Education was only available to women from royal class and noble class. Getting education for middle class and lower class women was very stringent due to Purdah System, Early marriage, social taboos and many more reasons. Many Mughal Princess such as Gulbadan Begum, Mumtaz Mahal, Noor Jahan, Jahan Ara, Roshan Ara, Sati al-Nisa Khanam and many more were taught literature and language. Many of them were well versed in poetry. During the Mughal era, women also made significant contributions to education through the establishment of institutions, in addition to their literary works. Some princess and women belonged to noble families had constructed mosque and attached Madrasas to it for imparting education.

Linguistic discussions of Urdu Language

The beginning and evolution of Urdu language is a controversial issue in our country. The research and editing of linguists regarding the early characteristics of Urdu language and its development is still going on. First, European historians researched and edited linguistics and presented their ideas. These theories were an early reference, hence their importance to Islam. Subsequent researchers and linguists carried on the same work. The beginning of the twentieth century marks the beginning of a vernacular period of linguistic research. During this period, there is a tendency to assign Urdu to a particular place or place. Many researchers have traced the traces of Urdu in the Mughal period. Among them, Mera Man, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Maulana Sohbai, Shamsullah Qadri and Maulana Muhammad Hussain Azad are worth mentioning. And some say it is a Dravidian language and some say Urdu is the daughter of Braj Bhasha. There are many theories about the origin of the Urdu language, but it is not entirely correct to connect it with any one region.

Worshipping the Sun at the End of Time: Neoplatonic Solar Cults in Mughal India and Barberini Rome

ABSTRACT This article delves into two notable instances of imperial solar cults during the long sixteenth century. One concerns the Mughal emperor Akbar in India, while the other revolves around the Barberini pope Urban VIII in Rome. Both cases will be examined through the lens of the longue-durée Great Tradition of Neoplatonism, taking-off from the earliest Neoplatonic sun cult as designed by Roman emperor Julian in the fourth century. Despite being centuries and worlds apart, the emergence of the Mughal and Barberini sun cults coincided with a period of rapidly expanding horizons amidst intense millenarian anxiety. Moreover, both cults were crafted by a team of avant-garde Neoplatonic intellectuals – mostly cosmologists and antiquarians – striving to bolster the imperial claims of their patrons. By exploring the intriguing Neoplatonic parallels between these two coinciding solar cults, this article advocates a truly global approach to intellectual history that transcends conventional temporal and spatial boundaries.

Translating Jain Philosophy at the Confluence of Persianate Hinduism

Abstract In 1796, Claude Martin (1735–1800), a wealthy French officer of the East India Company living in Lucknow, commissioned the Brahman Delārām to translate into Persian two classical texts from the Digambara Jain philosophical tradition. Using the Braj Bhāṣā commentaries composed by the seventeenth-century Jain author Hemrāj Pāṇḍe, Delārām was able to access the original Prakrit texts of the eighth- and tenth-century philosophers Kundakunda and Nemicandra via an updated vernacularized version. His translations are as an exceptional document showing the hermeneutic tools that a Persian-speaking Brahman could use to parse the doctrinal system of Jainism. Delārām’s language was markedly shaped by his familiarity with Advaita Vedānta and the “unity of being (vahdat al-vojud)” school of Sufism, focused on ontological unity. More specifically, the Sufi-Advaita idiom that developed in Persian from the early Mughal period onward functioned for Delārām as a lens through which he could engage with the doctrinal diversity of India’s religious landscape. His efforts to translate the unfamiliar and sometimes perplexing elements of Jainism reveal the complex modalities of crossing linguistic and religious boundaries through Persian in South Asia and their partial incommensurabilities.

The Discovery of English Wants: Dearth and Plenty in Early Modern Anglo-Indian Exchanges

English experiences of late-Elizabethan economic crises coincided with national ambition to engage in global trade, marking a shift in the discourse of “needs” and “wants” in the English commonwealth. English travelers and traders documented in different modes of writing the topography, climate, food resources, markets, and roadways of Mughal India to better understand local abundance, needs, and wants. Travel through food insecure regions in India, interaction with local inhabitants, and encounters with famine created hybrid chorographic modes: forms of writing about travel and place within English environments were adapted and applied to Indian regions. By examining the writings of four lesser-known travelers to India in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, this article argues that English understandings of nationhood, population, and commonwealth were informed by attempts to comprehend, inhabit, and write the complex, contingent spaces of other populations and their needs, wants, and crises, as well as those of Britain. The English commonwealth was thus reimagined in the context of the wider demographics of plural populations.

ВОПРОСЫ СОЦИАЛЬНОЙ ПОЛИТИКИ И ЗАЩИТЫ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ В ИНДИЙСКОМ ГОСУДАРСТВЕ МИРЗО БАБУРА

The article reveals the social policy of Babur, the founder and first ruler of the Mughal Empire in India. Based on the analysis of Babur’s works “Baburname”, “Mubayin” and “Wasiyat”, his attitude towards representatives of different classes is examined.

Governing Over Distance: Delegating Trust and Dealing with Disorder in the Early East India Company Trade

ABSTRACT This study uses an overlooked case to reveal how the problem of distance shaped the early English East Indies trade. In 1617, preacher William Lesk returned to London from Surat. He had been sent to be a moral leader for East India Company factors, but they returned him when his scandalous behaviour threatened the survival of the Company’s trade in the Mughal empire. The social circumstances of the factory had real, material consequences. The factors sent signed eyewitness accounts of his misdeeds for Company leaders to address, but in London, Lesk’s claims of first-hand knowledge of the East Indies trade and affairs in Surat, along with savvy use of the politics of publicity, meant that Company leaders found him challenging to deal with. The story of Lesk reveals how managing distance required compromises on how best to govern the East Indies trade. Distance shaped how Company leaders interpreted events in the East Indies, while also opening up avenues for resisting Company judgements. Distance informed every aspect of the Company’s operation – not just economic but also social and political – and is essential to understanding how and why the Company developed as it did, both in the East Indies and London.

Administrative and Economic Systems of the Mughal Empire: A Historical Analysis of Governance and Revenue Policies

The Mughal Dynasty commenced in 1526, led by the esteemed Babur, who is renowned as the pioneer and founder of Indian civilization through the process of unification. Due to its vast territorial reach from Kabul to Bengal, with natural boundaries such as the Arabian Sea and Himalayas, this dynasty was able to establish sophisticated formal institutions that surpassed those of other empires worldwide at that time. This study examines the complex governance system of The Mughal Empire, with a focus on the reigns of Babur, Humayun, Akbar, and Aurangzeb. Abul-Fazl Ibn Mubarak, a prominent historian during Akbar's reign, elucidated the Mughals' adoption of the dual strategies of 'JahanBani' (state maintenance) and 'Jahangiri' (imperial expansion). The article also examines Akbar's reforms in land revenue systems, which aimed to provide uniformity and economic stability in order to sustain the Empire's prosperity. The inclusion of women in the Mughal court is examined to highlight their cultural, political, and social achievements. This examination thoroughly explores the functioning of the Mughal administration and how it effectively maintained the empire's supremacy.

Kashmir Under the Influence of the Nadir Shah’s Indian Campaign (1738-39) (According to the Persian Manuscript of the 18th c.)

The article explores the impact of the Nadir Shah’s Indian campaign on the region of Kashmir in the 18th c., according to the Persian-language manuscript written by Muhammad ‘Azam Didamari. The manuscript provides unique insights into how Nadir Shah’s actions affected Kashmir, including the appointment of a new subahdar and a rebellion of the local population. Contrary to a popular belief, the author suggests that after the campaign the Mughal Empire retained control over Kashmir, highlighting the complex relations between Iran and the Mughal Empire. The study calls for a reevaluation of historical accounts of Nadir Shah’s campaign and emphasizes the need for further research of the role of Kashmir in this significant event. The information presented in the work of Muhammad ‘Azam encourages researchers to reconsider the history of Nadir Shah’s Indian campaign in order to more accurately determine the boundaries between the Mughal Empire and Iran after this event. The mention of Kashmir in the context of these events adds particular value to the study, since other sources on Nadir Shah and his military campaigns either do not mention Kashmir at all or only briefly touch on the region. In this context, the presence of this plot in the work of Muhammad ‘Azam is unique and calls for further research and analysis.

‘If Only That Pitiless Blade Had Pierced My Own Heart and Eyes’: Mughal Royal Women’s Grief as a Form of Political Rhetoric

Royal Mughal women have been acknowledged as powerful historical figures in the early modern Persianate world. This article provides a more concrete understanding of the extent and nuances of their power by carrying out a close reading of Mughal princess Gulbadan Begum’s the Humayunnamah, specifically her recollection of the different ways in which royal Mughal women from the sixteenth century used grief as a form of political rhetoric to undergird and even contest power within the imperial family. The Humayunnamah emerges as a pivotal text inviting a re-evaluation of the early Mughal empire as an integrated matriarchy, while also advocating for a deeper exploration of the history of emotions in the early modern Persianate context, particularly from a female-centred perspective.

From rupture to disruptive innovation: the colonial subcontinent’s ‘Devil’s Wind’; the Mughal Bagh (garden) and the English-style public park

ABSTRACT Set against the backdrop of the 1857 uprising against British colonial rule in the Indian subcontinent, the article examines the impact of this tumultuous event on the Mughal era Bagh (garden). The uprising, while causing a sudden and unprecedented rupture in the subcontinent’s political, cultural and urban landscape, also led to a form of disruptive innovation that displaced the well-established Bagh, a private space for leisure or veneration of the deceased, by a novel garden type, an English-style public park. More often than not, this new garden type emerged from remodelling the Bagh, to result in a Bagh-turned-Public Park. This innovative venture not only physically replaced the original Bagh but also changed the notion of leisure from the Mughal-to-the-metropole-inspired variant. Concurrently, this landscape endeavour served the agenda of empire to stamp British authority. To make its case, the city of Delhi, whose large corpus of Mughal- era Baghs underwent remodelling, is selected. As the epicentre of the uprising, Delhi was the recipient of the colonial regime’s spatially tumultuous military and civic interventions to turn it into a tamed modern city, among whose new spatial icons was the English-style public park. Two gardens are examined to demonstrate the rupture and disruptive innovation, as colonial civic actors overlaid an English-style landscape on the Bagh. This seemingly innocuous landscape intervention was as disruptive and efficacious as its spatially violent military counterpart in transforming Delhi into a colonial modern city. The article concludes by taking stock of the Bagh-turned-Public Park in the present as a colonial legacy that continues to be an integral part of the leisure landscape of Indian cities.

TRACING THE ETHEREAL: EXPLORING AESTHETIC HERITAGE AND CULTURAL IDENTITY IN HISTORIC GARDENS - A CASE STUDY OF SHALIMAR GARDEN

Mughal gardens are a prominent figure in the history of landscape architecture, serving as a symbol of artistic talent and horticultural genius. The Mughal gardens thrived throughout the Mughal Empire's rule in South Asia, and this dissertation investigates the profound philosophy that underpinned its design planting methods. The study explores the sociocultural factors that influenced Mughal gardening practices within the historical framework of that period. This study makes use of both primary and secondary sources to illuminate the main components of Mughal Garden design, including the widespread use of geometric patterns, water features, and the blending of architecture and landscape. A strong link between the gardens and the Mughal worldview is shown when the research additionally looks at the spiritual and metaphorical meanings connected to the fauna and plants selected for these gardens. Additionally, the study focuses on the cultivation practices used by Mughal horticulturists, showcasing their creative approaches to attaining a harmonic fusion of form and function. Mughal gardens are renowned for their overall visual effect, mostly due to the careful selection and placement of their flora. This dissertation tries to uncover the underlying plantation philosophy of Mughal gardens through a thorough investigation of historical records and garden ruins, highlighting the complex interactions between art, culture, and environment throughout this era. Modern landscape designers and hobbyists may take inspiration from the Mughal approach to horticulture and apply its timeless wisdom to contemporary gardening techniques by comprehending the fundamental ideas that guided the building of these gardens.

СОЦИАЛЬНЫЙ СОСТАВ ГОСУДАРСТВА БАБУРА В ИНДИИ

Zakhiriddin Muhammad Babur, a descendant of the Timurids, known as a poet, writer, historian, commander, head of state, founded the Mughal Empire in India, which lasted 300 years. During the reign of Babur and his descendants, the social structure of the state was complex and had a large number of different classes.

Symbolism and Aesthetics: Analyzing Mughal Motifs in Art and Architecture

Spanning from 16th to 18th of imperial rule in the Indian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire is an indelible mark on artistic expression through its meticulous cultivation of motifs in various mediums, including art, architecture, manuscript illumination, textiles and decorative arts. This paper examined the symbolism reflected in the Mughal art and architecture. Through a multidisciplinary approach drawing from art history, cultural studies and material culture analysis, this study examined the diverse typologies of Mughal motifs, which included the study of flora and fauna imagery on Mughal monuments, illustrated manuscripts, textile and costumes. By analyzing their aesthetic qualities, symbolic meanings attributed to floral motifs and historical contexts, this research seeks to unravel the complex layers of cultural synthesis and exchange that characterize Mughal art. Through a comprehensive exploration of primary sources, scholarly literature and visual analysis, this paper examined the motifs in shaping the artistic identities, cultural narratives and aesthetic sensibilities in the Mughal Empire and beyond.

Dinasti Mughal Dan Kemunduran Islam Di India Tahun 1525-1857 M

The History of Islam in India was characterized by changes in countries that entered India to spread various teachings and increase cultural differences. One of the spreads of religion that was very easy to understand in India at that time was the teachings of Islam and the development of various kingdoms, one of which was the Mughal dynasty. The founder of the Mughal dynasty who initially succeeded in establishing Islam in India was Kutbu'ddin Aibak. Of the several leaders of the Mughal Dynasty, there were only three leaders during which the Mughal Empire reached its heyday, namely Aurangzeb, Shah Jahan and Sultan Akbar. The method for writing this article is library research. This data is collected through several sources such as journals, articles and books according to what we use. The results of this research include 1) the founding of the Mughal dynasty, 2) the leaders of the Mughal dynasty from its inception until its decline, 3) the historical remains of the Mughal dynasty, 4) factors that caused the decline of the Mughal dynasty.

ROLE OF GEOMETRICAL ART IN THE MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MUGHAL TOMBS

Art and architecture are said to be interconnected from a long time. Mughal time period has been said to have the maximum art and art influence in its era. The architecture of that time is termed to be marvellous and spectacular. Art is considered something that is unique and a form of self-expression. The aim of this paper is to investigate the geometry used in morphological development of Mughal monuments and in their transitions. Live case study is done to explore the different elements, their geometry, artworks, and materials in Mughal monuments (Humayun’s Tomb and Itimad-Ud-Daulah tomb). The geometrical transitions in different elements of the tomb buildings studied and their interrelationship is then found. Findings shows that these transformations contributed in the development of overall morphological definition of Mughal tomb structures. It can be seen that Mughal era art and architecture made use of geometry in their morphological development. Also, different materials and art forms were used in different architectural elements of tomb buildings.

HISTORICAL FIGURES OF ARMENIAN DESCENT IN THE MUGHAL [INDO-TURKIC ISLAMIC EMPIRE] PALACE

Some sources date back to the first contact of Armenians with Indian geography until the Indian expedition of Alexander. In the history of the Middle Ages, it is known that the first mass arrival of Armenians, who had become famous for their mercantile skills, to the Indian subcontinent took place around the XVII century, i.e., during the Mughal era. This study provides a descriptive analysis of the emergence of bilateral relations with a deep-rooted history in the era of the Mughal (Indo-Turkic Islamic) Empire. In this context, historical figures of Armenian descent who served in high positions in the Mughal court or were even honored with imperial titles are discussed. These historical figures are Prince John Philip Bourbon, Captain William Hawkins, interpreter Domingo Pires, Mirza Zulkarneyn, and Mariam (Maryam) Zamani Begum. Prince John Philip Bourbon, a member of the French royal family of Armenian descent who had been exiled to India, served the Mughal dynasty in high positions at Akbar's court. William Hawkins was an agent of the British East India Company and captain of the first ship to dock in Surat, India. Domingo Pires, who had served as a translator and interpreter at the Mughal court, was personally appointed by Akbar to attend the negotiations with the Portuguese in Goa. Mirza Zulkarneyn and Mariam Zamani Begum held higher positions in the Mughal court than the others. While Zulkarneyn, as a member of the divan raised in the harem, served as faujdar and governor, Mariam Zamani Begum is known as the chief queen of Akbar. Although claims about her descent and religion differ, for this study the views in the literature that she was of Armenian descent will be emphasized. Thus, with this study, in which we present a cross-section of the Mughal era, we have attempted to provide a historical background to Indo-Armenian relations from the perspective of the discipline of Area Studies, as it reflects the development of present-day India-Armenia bilateral relations in the historical process