Mud-brick Walls Research Articles

Case Study on Behavior of a Masonry Buildings Under Seismic Loading October 2023 Earthquake in Nepal

Abstract: This paper assesses the behavior of the corners of unreinforced masonry walls during a magnitude 5.3 earthquake that struck western Nepal on October 3 at 14:40 local time. A strong aftershock with a 6.3 Richter scale occurred immediately after the main shock at 15:06, followed by a second aftershock of 5.1 Richter scale. The epicenter of the quake was located in Bajhang district, with tremors felt in neighboring districts (Doti, Achham, Bajura, Dadeldhura, Baitadi, and Darchula), as well as in Kathmandu. According to the National Society of the Red Cross, 334 houses have been fully damaged, and 1,185 have been partially damaged. The assessment is still ongoing in the affected areas, with displaced people staying in schools or with neighbors. The response is slow due to access constraints, requiring one to two days of walking to reach the affected communities. The majority of the buildings in the affected region are constructed with masonry, most of which were formed with random or coursed stone and mud brick walls without any reinforcement. Many of these buildings were damaged or had collapsed. The cracking and failure patterns of the buildings are examined and interpreted according to current provisions for earthquake resistance of masonry structures. The damages are attributed to several factors, such as poor construction quality and workmanship. This study aims to contribute to the body of knowledge necessary for improving earthquake resilience in Nepal and similar regions around the world

Experimental study on the in-plane behavior of mud brick walls strengthened with bamboo strip mesh and dried jute thread

Despite advancements in modern structural engineering, adobe and mud brick constructions persisted as important housing options for a significant percentage of the world's population. However, because of their low strength and brittle nature, they are susceptible to natural disasters, especially earthquakes, which is a concern for many mud-brick buildings found in seismically active areas. To address this issue, this research investigated the in-plane behavior of 4 ft x 4 ft mud-brick walls strengthened with locally available materials i.e. Bamboo Strips and Dried Jute Thread in mesh format with various spacing. The specimens were subjected to compressive and diagonal shear loading separately. The data collected was analyzed to determine the important mechanical properties such as compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, shear strength, modulus of rigidity, and energy absorption. Notably, the bamboo strips technique improved these properties by 30 %, 19 %, 96 %, 82 %, and 195 %, respectively. The dried jute thread wrapping technique, on the other hand, demonstrated even greater improvements with increases of 40 %, 69 %, 102 %, 110 %, and 314 % for the same properties. Based on the experimental results, the proposed technique can be applied to mud-brick wall in seismically active areas.

Masters of mudbrick: Geoarchaeological analysis of Iron Age earthen public buildings at Ashdod‐Yam (Israel)

AbstractExcavations at Ashdod‐Yam exposed a fortification system that features a massive mudbrick wall with large earthen ramparts laid on either side. This fortified horseshoe‐shaped enclosure once surrounded what was likely a human‐made harbor and an adjacent acropolis with complex earthen architecture, constructed and active during Iron Age IIB–C (eighth–seventh centuries B.C.E.). These Iron Age public structures are at the center of the current research. In this paper, we present the geoarchaeological analyses of Ashdod‐Yam's earthen architecture. We applied a multidisciplinary methodology to new evidence for mudbrick manufacture with the goal of understanding the relationship between governing bodies and craftsmen. The analyses combine X‐ray fluorescence, loss on ignition, environmental scanning electron microscopy, and thin‐section petrography to investigate raw material procurement, manufacturing choices, and labor organization at Ashdod‐Yam during Iron IIB–C. Construction techniques and the standardization of the mudbrick recipe point to a local enterprise regarding the site's public earthen architecture. Furthermore, the degree of labor organization must have been closely observed and supervised by a central political power. Thus, it is argued here that construction and maintenance of the site was carried out by the kingdom of Ashdod, either as a part of its own local initiative or on behalf of the Neo‐Assyrian empire.

The Bronze Age Destruction of Jericho, Archaeology, and the Book of Joshua

The ancient city of Jericho, located at the archaeological site of Tell es-Sultan west of the Jordan River and adjacent to the Ein es-Sultan spring on the edge of modern Jericho, has often been associated with the biblical city of Jericho and the story found in the book of Joshua. The identification of Jericho with Tell es-Sultan is not disputed, and numerous excavation teams have affirmed Tell es-Sultan as Jericho. While excavations have also uncovered the fiery destruction of a walled city at Jericho, the date of the fall of Bronze Age Jericho and the association of this destruction with the narrative in the book of Joshua have been a point of disagreement among archaeologists for more than a century. The first excavations at Jericho (Tell es-Sultan) occurred in 1868 under the direction of Charles Warren, followed by soundings conducted by FJ Bliss in 1894, the expeditions of the years 1907–1909 and 1911 by Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger, the excavations of 1930–1936 directed by John Garstang, the 1952–1958 project of Kathleen Kenyon, brief excavations by Shimon Riklin in 1992, and the most recent excavations and restorations by the joint Italian–Palestinian team from 1997 to 2000 under Nicolo Marchetti and Lorenzo Nigro, followed by the 2009–2017 seasons directed by Jehad Yasin, Hamdan Taha, and Lorenzo Nigro. Although there is a significant deviation in views over the exact date of the destruction and abandonment, archaeological analyses of Jericho generally agree on the manner in which the city met its end, including a widespread fire, collapsed mudbrick walls, burning of the stored grain, and abandonment. However, assessing all of the archaeological data from Jericho IVc, both new and old, including pottery wares, Egyptian scarabs, a cuneiform tablet, stratigraphic analysis, and radiocarbon samples, allows a more definitive historical reconstruction concerning the chronology of the destruction of Jericho and its connections to the biblical narratives.

Reproduction and long-term monitoring of drying of mudbricks and small mudbrick walls for the preservation of the ancient mudbrick wall of Eleusis

The mudbrick wall remains preserved to date in the site of Eleusis are some of the largest preserved in Greece. Following an extensive investigation of the properties of existing mudbricks, material of similar properties from the archaeological site of Eleusis was used to reproduce mudbricks of similardensity with the ancient ones after drying with various concentrations of dry grass also from the archaeological site. Actual mudbricks were reproduced and brought to a final equilibrium condition under climatic conditions practically similar to those in Eleusis. Others were used to trim samples and measuremechanical properties to compare with original mudbricks, others were instrumented with suction and volumetric water content sensors in order to monitor mudbrick drying under climatic conditions and others in order to build small mudbrick walls with mortar from the same soil used to make the mudbricks. These small mudbrick walls included the mudbricks with internally installed suction and volumetric water content sensors and were also constructed with similar sensors in the mortar. This allowed monitoring of drying of the mortar until each whole mudbrick wall came to equilibrium and was then subjected to uniaxial compression under load control. Monitoring of mudbricks and mudbrick walls indicated that the higher the dry grass concentration, the higher the drying rate of the mudbricks; the lower the dry grass concentration the higher the probability of mudbrick cracking during drying; minimum required time for mudbrick and mudbrick wall drying for the particular soil used in the ancient mudbricks is not less than 5 weeks. Finally, uniaxial compression under load control on both samples trimmed from dried mudbricks and mudbrick walls indicated that uniaxial compression strength decreases with increasing dry grass concentration and mudbrick wall strength should be expected in the order of 70-80% that of the cubic samples trimmed from dried mudbricks and subjected to load rate control compression.

Investigation of the properties and behaviour of ancient and newly constructed mudbricks from the ancient walls of Eleusis

The paper presents the test results from the investigation of the nature and mechanical behaviour of mudbricks from the ancient mudbrick wall of Eleusis in Attica, Greece. The mudbrick wall remains preserved to date in the site of Eleusis are some of the largest preserved in Greece. Small fragments of mudbricks were taken to the laboratory for experimental investigation. Testing included index tests toclassify the soil material the mudbricks were made of, mineralogical analyses of their fines’ content, mechanical testing suitable for the nature of the materials and the ability to trim the samples without causing damage and measurements of suction on samples as they were obtained, further dried, or rewetted. The soil material used for ancient mudbrick construction was a silty sand to sandy silt with a small fraction clay content, with marginally plastic to non-plastic fines. Dry unit weight was found to be close to the dry unit weight of fresh mudbrick material after being compacted with a minimum compaction energy of only 45 kNm/m3 and left to dry to residual water content conditions. Similarly, field water content was found close to the residual water content of these recompacted soil samples. Consequently, unconfined compression strength was found very high corresponding to the residual water content condition, with similarly high cohesion obtained from direct shear tests and a very high yield stress under one-dimensional conditions of loading.

A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Conservation of Salūt, Sultanate of Oman

ABSTRACT The relationship between planning and restoration work, and the acquisition of data necessary for contextual understanding of Salūt, a large Iron Age site, are discussed. Its different historical contexts required close collaboration among architects, archaeologists, Ministry of Heritage and Culture staff, local workers and students from Sultan Qaboos University (SQU). A central aim was to awaken the interest of the community and encourage them to play an active role in the conservation of local heritage sites. This and the technical solutions adopted are also a focus of the paper. Intangible cultural heritage should be considered to be an integral part of the site. A number of activities was undertaken to develop sustainable responses for the management of Omani cultural heritage: historical and ethnographic research into the traditional techniques of mudbrick and mud plaster construction, with visits to surrounding villages to identify Omani residents familiar with the process; information storage, images, and video interviews for a multi-level, potentially replicable approach; creation and implementation of guidelines for the conservation of the mudbrick walls; organization of site visits, awareness-raising activities for local students and interested community members; the training of two female SQU students in stratigraphic excavation and conservation of artifacts; and the use of state-of-the-art surveying and 3D modeling for the evaluation of interventions. The program at Salūt site, until the interruption due to the pandemic, has produced largely positive results, and the methodology developed here can promote recovery of other archaeological sites similar to Salūt.

Catechumens, Women, and Agricultural Laborers: Who Used the Fourth-century Hall at the Church of 'Ain el-Gedida, Egypt?

This article assesses the archaeological evidence of a large hall that was part of a fourth-century church complex discovered at 'Ain el-Gedida, in the Dakhla Oasis of Egypt's Western Desert. The focus is on the spatial and functional relationship of the hall with the church and the rest of the complex. The room was broadly identified as a gathering hall because of the existence of mudbrick mastabas (benches) running along three of its walls. It was also connected to the church via two passageways, one of which was sealed—at some point in antiquity—with a mudbrick wall that obscured the remains of a stepped podium between the two spaces. The location of the platform suggests that it was once used by someone—possibly a priest—who needed to be seen and heard by people assembled in both the church and the gathering hall. People sitting (or standing) in the latter would have had only limited visual access onto the church, with the area of the sanctuary being concealed to them. The goal of this essay is to shed light on who might have congregated in the hall at 'Ain el-Gedida, before and after its alterations, and—more broadly—on the social composition of the community that inhabited this rural site of Egypt's Western Desert in Late Antiquity.

The Gebelein Archaeological Project in 2019: Northern necropolis and the temple complex

Continued archaeological surveys at two sites in the Gebelein area, the Northern Necropolis and the temple complex, have contributed new data for a better understanding of the ancient remains. Geophysical anomalies detected in 2015 in the western part of the Northern Necropolis should now be interpreted most probably as tombs with mud-brick walls. Mounds of earth in the central part of the necropolis yielded numerous artifacts dating from between the Naqada I and the early Old Kingdom periods; they are likely to have been dumped from a nearby settlement site, probably the ancient town of Sumenu. Work in the temple complex was aimed at protecting the structure made of inscribed mud-bricks dating from the Twenty-first Dynasty.

Shedding light on the Sudanese Dark Ages: Geophysical research at Old Dongola, a city-state of the Funj period (16th-19th centuries).

The article presents the results of magnetic and ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) research carried out in Old Dongola in northern Sudan in 2018 and 2020, within the framework of a project designed to investigate the transition from Christianity to Islam taking place in the capital of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria. The integrated datasets from the application of two geophysical methods, of which one is the standard magnetic method used on sites in the Nile Valley and the other ground‐penetrating radar, enhanced the archaeological interpretation, focused in this case on a reconstruction of the urban layout of the 16th–18th‐century Funj settlement within the walls of the Dongola Citadel. The magnetic method, the effectiveness of which has gone unquestioned with regard to the study of silt architecture in the Nile valley, was successful in mapping the general outline of the settlement on the Citadel hill and in the quarter north of the walls. The GPR survey (450‐MHz antenna) provided a much more detailed image of the street grid and was much more effective than the magnetic method in tracing the course of mud‐brick walls in a sandy matrix containing baked brick rubble. Verification of the geophysical results through the excavation of selected parts of the Citadel not only satisfied the objectives of the archaeological project, which was to establish the overall street and building layout in the research area, but also confirmed the effectiveness of the two prospection methods applied in combination and the potential of integrated research with the use of the GPR and magnetic methods for the study of mud‐brick and baked brick architecture on settlement sites in Sudan.

A New Aceramic Neolithic Site Nearby the Obsidian Sources: Preliminary Insights from Sırçalıtepe

This paper is a general assessment of the studies conducted in 2019 and 2020 at the site of Sırçalıtepe. The settlement, which is dated to the 8th mill BCE, is located in the Volcanic Cappadocia region, within the borders of the Kayırlı village in the province of Niğde. With its location, it can be characterised as the nearest site to the Göllüdağ and Nenezi Dağ obsidian sources in the region. The excavations at Sırçalıtepe were carried out in two different areas of the mound. One trench is the slope trench with documented architectural remains and finds related to daily life, and the other trench is from the top of the mound where obsidian knapping debris is present in proportions commonly seen in workshop areas. The architectural remains discovered in the slope trench involve mudbrick walls, lime plastered floors, and large ovens. However, the investigated area from the top trench with abundant cores and knapping debris reveals the difference between Sırçalıtepe and other contemporaneous sites in the region. Thus, it can be argued that Sırçalıtepe, especially with its obsidian artefacts, has the potential for revealing the relationship between the workshop and the site. Portable XRF analyses performed on a group of obsidian artefacts showed that the settlement inhabitants used Göllüdağ, Nenezi Dağ, and Acıgöl obsidian sources.

Archaeological Investigation and Hazard Assessment Using Magnetic, Ground-Penetrating Radar, and GPS Tools at Dahshour Area, Giza, Egypt

An archeological study using magnetic and ground-penetrating radar methods has been performed at the Dahshour region (Giza, Egypt), where various covered structures have not been found because of the long coercion of the zone under the military specialists. Dahshour is the southern extension of the Saqqara and Giza Pyramids plateau, around 25 km south of Cairo. The area is known for its colored pyramids—the white, red, and black pyramids, and the famous Bent Pyramid. Four investigation sites were chosen around the Bent Pyramid complex. The geophysical investigation has revealed the presence of some buried structures made up of mud bricks such as tombs, mud-brick walls, causeway, and remains of an ancient temple. Numerous limestone blocks were also detected. The study indicates the possible existence of an older valley temple made up of mud bricks and confirms the existence of another causeway that led to the Nile Valley. To protect the Egyptian heritage around this vital area, a detailed computation of the current crustal stress/strain state has been performed by taking into account all the available GPS observations. Achieved results indicated that the southern and the southeastern sectors of the investigated area are currently accumulating strain, and this means that there is a possibility for future earthquakes to occur around this vital archaeological area. Buried structures are preserved by confinement in the burial materials like a large mold. However, external load or stress can still cause damage. Therefore, during excavation, the stress should be reduced to avoid wall collapsing and structure damage. Therefore, it is recommended to start excavation from the stress direction from the southern side.

UBC Excavations of the Roman Villa at Gerace, Sicily: Results of the 2018 Season

A fifth season of excavation at the late Roman rural estate of Gerace (Enna province, Sicily) took place in 2018. A rectangular kiln of the fifth century ad, partially excavated in 2017, was confirmed as having internal walls of mud brick, hardened by successive firings. It was reduced in size in a secondary period. Investigation was conducted on another of the vertical shafts, extraordinarily hacked through the thickness of parts of the mud-brick walls of this kiln in the sixth century, in order to create rudimentary furnaces, but their function remains unknown. In the bath-house of ca. 380 ad, the rest of the frigidarium, partly investigated in 2017, was uncovered. The geometric mosaic floor has an inscription on all four sides, uniquely so in the Roman Empire; it names the estate as the praedia Philippianorum. Roundels on the mosaic include monograms of ‘Asclepiades’ and ‘Capitolini’, both also named in the inscription. The text of the inscription is discussed, and possible interpretations of what it might mean are offered. Excavation found that the walls of the cold room were never finished and a horseshoe-shaped cold pool on its north side was never installed, suggesting that the baths were left incomplete, although they were used. Further evidence was found of serious earthquake damage that occurred in the second half of the fifth century. It may have happened at night if burn marks on one part of the mosaic come from dislodged torches; they and a glass lamp suggest that night bathing was practised, in line with its increasing popularity elsewhere in late antiquity. An attempt was made to repair the baths after the earthquake, but this was aborted while still in full swing, and the baths were abandoned. A small part of the early Byzantine settlement which replaced the elite buildings on the estate soon afterwards, was excavated nearby; three phases were identified, belonging to the sixth and seventh centuries. Five appendices present evidence of kiln temperature, animal bones, carbonized seeds, and wood charcoal, as revealed during the 2018 season, as well as a selection of pottery from key deposits which aids the dating of individual phases.

Tell el-Farkha: archaeological fieldwork 2018–2019

The Tell el-Farkha site, which has been excavated since 1998, is formed of three tells. All three were excavated in the course of the two seasons, reopening already established trenches. Breweries discovered earlier on the Western Kom were explored, two completely, two in the early stages of exploration. Thick poorly preserved mud-brick walls were unearthed northeast of one of the breweries. Remains of a multi-roomed structure continued to be cleared in the northern trench on the Central Kom. D-shaped red bricks in this area suggest the presence of a brewery in the vicinity. A Naqada IIB and IIC settlement was recognized in the southern trench: storage pits, postholes, and furrows from a big house built of wood. A part of a settlement dated to the Tell el-Farkha Phases 3 and 4 (Naqada IID2–mid IIIB) was explored on the Eastern Kom. Of greatest interest is a structure composed of rectangular rooms around an open space, probably a courtyard. Three graves were discovered including one dated to the Naqada IIIB with the first pottery coffin discovered at Tell el-Farkha.

Strategic design of wall envelopes for the enhancement of building thermal performance at reduced air-conditioning costs

A strategy is proposed for the design of wall envelopes to improve unsteady thermal performance in non-air-conditioned buildings and to reduce energy costs in air-conditioned buildings. The thermophysical properties of building materials (e.g., burnt bricks, mud bricks, laterite stone, cinder concrete, and expanded polystyrene) were measured experimentally using a thermal analyzer. A total of 28 combinations for composite walls were designed with expanded polystyrene as an insulation material based on seven criteria and were subjected to 8 different external surface heat transfer coefficients, which were tested for unsteady thermal performance parameters and air-conditioning cost-saving potential. In this paper, unsteady thermal transmittance obtained from admittance method has been employed to compute cost saving potential of air-conditioning for the various wall envelopes. The use of C–H5 design at a 2 m/s wind speed was found to increase the decrement lag of burnt brick, mud brick, laterite stone, and cinder concrete composite wall envelopes by 48.1%, 49.0%, 59.5%, and 47.0%, respectively, relative to the common wall design (C–H1) in non-air-conditioned buildings. The laterite with a C–H5 design offers the highest annual energy cost savings (1.71 $/m2 at 2 m/s), the highest life cycle cost savings (18.32 $/m2 at 2 m/s), and the lowest payback period (4.03 yrs at 2 m/s) in all tested building materials for air-conditioned buildings. The overall results of this study are expected to open new paths to deliver simple design strategies for energy-efficient buildings.

Transforming waste disposals into building materials to investigate energy savings and carbon emission mitigation potential.

This work aims to enhance the energy cost-saving potential of conventional mud-brick by including natural waste materials as insulators. The solid waste materials considered for mud bricks are rice husk, sawdust, coir pith, and fly ash. This work investigates the structural and thermoeconomic performance of four types of insulated mud bricks and three roofs of ferrocement, clay, and ceramic materials. The thermal properties of walls and roofs were measured as per ASTM D 5334 standards. The utilization of solid waste in mud bricks enhanced the structural properties and air-conditioning cost-saving potential of the mud bricks. The results also showed the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions with the usage of insulated bricks for buildings. The rice husk mud-brick wall showed better results of higher time lag, lower decrement factor, higher air-conditioning cost-savings, acceptable payback periods, and higher annual carbon mitigation values of 11.11 h, 0.24, 1.74 $/m2, 1.17 years, and 33.35 kg/kWh, respectively, among all the studied multilayer walls. Among the roofs, clay tile roof showed a lower decrement factor (0.989), higher time lag (0.73 h), higher air-conditioning cost-savings (2.58 $/m2), lower payback periods (0.61 years), and higher annual carbon mitigation (21.73 kg/kWh). The results are in designing eco-friendly and energy-efficient envelopes for buildings.

Household Buildings of Vovchansk hillfort: Their Reconstruction and Interpretation Problems

Vovchansk hillfort is located in the eastern border area of Vovchansk city in Kharkiv Region. It belongs to the Saltiv archaeological culture (mid. VIII — mid. X centuries), which reflects material and cultural remains of the Khazar Khaganate. This site is among one and a half dozens of microregions in the Khazar Khaganate located in the middle stream of the Siverskyi Donets. The site is located on the cape of the right bank of the Vovcha River (right inflow of the Siversky Donets). It has one yard with a threefold defence system that includes earthen walls, ditches and scarps. Household buildings were discovered in the northern part of the citadel, and between outward and inward defensive lines. A small household zone was found within the range of the space near citadel walls; its household buildings were of a small area, with mud-brick walls. They were likely to serve for food supply storage meant to be delivered for a small number of consumers (for example, for the citadel garrison). Nine household buildings found between exterior and middle defence lines were investigated in the southern part of the hillfort; they are located in 4.0—6.0 meters from one another (in the absence of nearby dwellings). All of them are different in their plan and construction. The reconstruction of the most extant ones is offered in the article. The following things were taken into account: results of archaeological research, construction quality of grounds, surrounding nature of construction raw materials, presence of implements and their feasibility of raw materials processing, and also ethnographic data on traditional construction of the population in XVIII—XIX centuries. These buildings were designed for food preservation in wooden or vine- or fibre-braided baskets and other containers, also in bags (of leather or tissue) and ceramic tare. As to the purpose of these food stocks, some hypotheses are offered. The 1st hypothesis: the storage could belong to the local surrounding population in the times of external threat for the residents of the nearby settlements; it seems probable in the light of the civil war in Khazaria at the beginning of the 9th century. The 2nd hypothesis: food supply could be stored to be consumed by the garrison, which could be located in the hillfort citadel for creating military pressure on the Slavs. The 3rd hyposesis: the mentioned buildings could be used for temporary retention of the corn harvest (and probably, the Slavs’ tribute) reaped by the local community before its shipping at the disposal of the central authority of the Khaganate. Similarity between two discovered household buildings in the excavation site No. 3 points to the fact that the work was done by the same craftsmen group following the common plan. Constructive diversity of household buildings in the excavation site No. 4 shows that they were created by different craftsmen groups.

THE USE OF TRADITIONAL MUD-BASED MASONRY IN THE RESTORATION OF THE IRON AGE SITE OF SALŪT (OMAN). A WAY TOWARDS MUTUAL PRESERVATION

Abstract. The archaeological record of the Sultanate of Oman speaks of the use of mudbricks (adobes) and mud plaster as key building materials over a long chronological range from the Early Bronze Age (late 4th / 3rd millennium BC) to the Late Iron Age at least (first centuries BC). Traditional earthen architecture perpetuated this scenario until modern times when the discovery of oil brought along deep transformations in the local economy and way of living. This long-lasting tradition has provided the necessary means to cope with the problem of mudbrick structures conservation on the prominent archaeological site of Salūt, in central Oman, where substantial mudbrick walls were discovered, dating to the second half of the second millennium BC and beyond. In fact, exploiting the life-long experience in mud-based masonry of a local mason turned out to be the best (and arguably only) way of consolidating and protecting the ancient structures. This strategy not only is definitely a sustainable one, as only readily accessible and largely available natural materials were employed, but it also helps to revive a locally rooted skill that seriously risks being forgotten due to the lack of interest in younger generations. With this aim in mind, a survey and recording of the local terminology connected with the tools and techniques of mud-based masonry were also carried out. This paper will account for the various stages of the work that led to the final restoration and conservation of the site. The use of different media – pictures, drawings, videos – reflects the comprehensive approach towards this fundamental issue. The recent development of the project included the preparation of mud plasters made following different procedures in order to achieve a better visual impact and a lower static load on the structures.

The second season of excavations at Jebel Moya (south-central Sudan)

AbstractThis report presents the latest data from ongoing excavations at Jebel Moya, Sudan. This year saw the opening of five new trenches and continued excavation of an archaeologically rich trench. We have recovered four individual burials, a mud brick wall and a number of animal and archaeobotanical remains. The excavations also yielded a longer pottery sequence, showing clearly that the site was in use by at least the sixth millennium BC. This season confirms the long and complex history of Jebel Moya and provides the material for future studies on population health and subsistence. This season also saw an increase in community engagement and a more detailed study of the various historical trajectories that make up the biography of Jebel Moya.

Another Brick in the Wall: Mudbrick Construction at the Iron Age II Site of Hili 2 (Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates)

The Iron Age II site of Hili 2 (Emirate of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates) is remarkable because of its preservation. The initial excavations, begun in the 1970s, unearthed mudbrick walls preserved in places two meters high. Fieldwork recommenced at Hili 2 in 2018 and as part of this effort the previously exposed architecture was re‐examined. Of particular interest were three collapsed mudbrick walls that were excavated in order to conserve the surrounding architecture. The walls were removed course by course, providing new insight into mudbrick construction and raising questions about the social organisation of Iron Age settlements.