Mud-brick Houses Research Articles

Van Earthquake’s Effects on Mud-Brick Houses in Van and the Last Survived Buildings

Van Earthquake’s Effects on Mud-Brick Houses in Van and the Last Survived Buildings

Mud brick houses as a suitable alternative to emergency shelters for internally displaced persons (IDPs): evidence from Northern Syria

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the feasibility of mud brick houses as an alternative to the more widely adopted emergency shelters used in war-torn Syria. It focuses on the mud houses’ sustainability, cost effectiveness, cultural preference, income generation and security. Design/methodology/approach This study uses a qualitative research approach to a single case study. Interviews were conducted with field experts from the Qatar Red Crescent Society and members of the internally displaced persons (IDPs) community living in mud brick houses. Findings The findings reveal that the utilisation of mud houses is a good alternative in relief efforts. The houses are sustainable and cost-effective, take into consideration cultural dynamics and provide economic empowerment to IDPs. However, the maintenance of mud brick houses turns out to be the largest flaw, and this problem requires further research. Originality/value The paper highlights the inefficiency of current emergency sheltering practices in Syria and reveals that tents are not a preferred mode of shelter. It further sheds light on a unique case study in which mud houses were used by an aid and development organisation, highlighting its strengths and weaknesses. This paper contributes to practical discussion and ideation on more appropriate housing for IDPs.

Investigation of earthquake-damaged and affected structures

Recent earthquakes in Zinda Jan district, Herat province during the fall season of 2023 resulted in more than 2000 casualties and the destruction of numerous houses and buildings in the villages of Zinda Jan. From a technical perspective, notable factors in this tragedy include traditional and improper construction methods, the formation of structures with metal frames, concrete structures, and load-bearing walls without proper earthquake design. Based on surveys in the affected villages of Zinda Jan, the buildings can be categorized into four types: traditional mud-brick houses, masonry structures, concrete buildings, and metal structures. In the research, more than 95% of mud-brick houses were destroyed due to their lack of resilience against earthquakes, causing the highest number of casualties. Timber-framed structures and load-bearing walls ranked second, causing the most damage after mud-brick houses. However, fortunately, fewer roofs collapsed, resulting in the preservation of human lives. In the studied areas, concrete buildings and metal structures are also noticeable, with some of these structures suffering severe damage while a few remained intact without significant damage. This study discusses the vulnerability of buildings and houses, as well as the reasons for the incurred damages, which have yielded desirable results. It is undeniable that shortcomings in planning, design, calculations, execution, and supervision all played a role in this major incident because only a few structures remained undamaged in this earthquake.

Voicing a path to the afterlife: Rituals for the dead, transnational mobility and the changing soundspace of Islam among Mongolian Kazakhs

This article explores the role of sound and space in the negotiation of Muslim identity within rituals for the dead among the Kazakhs of Mongolia, a Turkic-speaking community that forms the majority population in the west of the country. Mobile pastoralists practising a syncretic form of Islam that integrates ancestor-spirit worship, Mongolian Kazakhs traditionally commemorated the dead at funeral and memorial feasts conducted in the portable nomadic yurt, and involving men’s recitation of the Qur’an and women’s performance of laments. The political and social transformations of the post-Soviet period, however, have wrought changes in the architectonics of the rituals. Increased transnational mobility in the wake of Kazakhstan’s independence has led to memorial feasts being held in venues ranging from mud-brick houses in western Mongolia to urban apartments, restaurants or mosques in Kazakhstan. The emergence of revivalist trends in Islam has prompted debates around the legitimacy and correct performance of female lamentation. Based on ethnography in Mongolia and Kazakhstan, the article examines how changes in the spatial and sonic configuration of the rituals reflect and shape evolving concepts of religiosity and gendered relations among the transnational community of Mongolian Kazakhs. The author introduces the concept of ‘soundspace’ to underscore the significance of spatiality, embodiment and emplacement in the production of sonic religious expression and experience.

“Animal-Style Art,” and Special Finds at Iron Age Settlements in Southeastern Kazakhstan: Chronology, Trade, and Networks during the Iron Age

Two Iron Age settlements, Tuzusai and Taldy Bulak 2 (ca. 500 BC to 1 CE), located in southeastern Kazakhstan on the Talgar alluvial fan north of the Tian Shan range, have yielded a small collection of bone, antler/horn, bronze, and stone artifacts with an affinity to the nomadic art of the first millennium BC. Both settlements date within the period of late Saka culture. Two pieces have decorative ornamentations with zoomorphic imagery: a small carved fragment with carved images of a wing and an ear and a perforated bone disk with the carving of three birds’ heads. The other artifacts include objects associated with Saka weaponry or nomadic economy, such as two horn psalias (cheek pieces) and a bronze amulet. A carnelian bead will also be described as an imported object. These special finds were found on the occupation floors of mud brick houses and in the pit houses of settlements, not in grave or burial contexts. The objects were placed in a stratigraphic sequence in the settlement sites. The method for placing these objects within the chronological framework of “animal-style art” is through comparisons with similar objects found throughout Eurasia—a method used in Soviet and post-Soviet archaeology. The results show that the functional and stylistic elements of the six objects indicate that the Talgar settlements were part of a larger world-system of trade and communication along the early Silk Route(s).

Knowing Palmyra: Mandatory production of archaeological knowledge

During the Syrian conflict, ongoing since 2011, Palmyra became notorious for the destruction and looting of its Roman-period remains, giving rise to many narratives of what Palmyra’s future should bring, often without attention to how we have come to know its past. This article explores that past through a key period—the French Mandate—when European archaeologists categorically reshaped the site, culminating in the relocation of the site’s population from mudbrick houses in and around the Temple of Bel to a new, military-built town north of the original. We examine the site immediately prior to that transformation through contemporary archaeological diaries from 1924 to 1928, written by Danish archaeologist Harald Ingholt. Through his diaries, it is possible to reconstruct the complexity of knowledge production at the site, which disrupts the authorized discourses of archaeological discovery with important consequences for how we understand the contribution of local inhabitants to scientific knowledge.

Withdrawal and Transformation of Rural Homesteads in Traditional Agricultural Areas of China Based on Supply-Demand Balance Analysis

Idle and abandoned rural homesteads not only waste land resources, they also affect the quality of life of farmers and occupy land that could be used for agricultural production and ecological space. Analysis of the supply–demand relationship of rural homesteads is an important prerequisite for the implementation of rural homestead withdrawal and transformation, which is important for improving rural residential quality and land-use efficiency, promoting sustainable development and the classified revitalization of rural areas. Based on high-resolution remote sensing images of typical villages in traditional agricultural areas, a participatory evaluation method was used to analyze the supply–demand balance of rural homesteads and to propose countermeasures for their withdrawal and transformation. The results showed that: 1) rural homesteads have gradually realized the separation of living space and production space, the living function has gradually been enhanced, the production function has gradually weakened, and the ecological aesthetic function has emerged. 2) Farmers’ demand for rural homesteads is driven by various factors, including social and economic development level, lifestyle and livelihood. 3) There are a large number of idle or abandoned rural homesteads in traditional agricultural areas, with great withdrawal potential. The difference between the supply and demand of rural homesteads in use is obvious. The supply of living space of adobe house and mud-brick houses is less than the demand for them, and there is mixed use of space. The supply of production space for brick houses is less than the demand; in general, the supply of buildings is greater than the demand. 4) For rural homesteads still in use, exit and transformation strategies should be formulated according to the relationship between supply and demand, construction quality, spatial independence, and the wishes of farmers. The withdrawal and transformation of rural homesteads based on the balance between supply and demand is in line with the reality of rural development and the Chinese government’s strategy of national rural revitalization.

Visceral leishmaniasis outbreaks in Bihar: community-level investigations in the context of elimination of kala-azar as a public health problem

BackgroundWith visceral leishmaniasis (VL) incidence at its lowest level since the 1960s, increasing attention has turned to early detection and investigation of outbreaks.MethodsOutbreak investigations were triggered by recognition of case clusters in the VL surveillance system established for the elimination program. Investigations included ascertainment of all VL cases by date of fever onset, household mapping and structured collection of risk factor data.ResultsVL outbreaks were investigated in 13 villages in 10 blocks of 7 districts. Data were collected for 20,670 individuals, of whom 272 were diagnosed with VL between 2012 and 2019. Risk was significantly higher among 10–19 year-olds and adults 35 or older compared to children younger than 10 years. Outbreak confirmation triggered vector control activities and heightened surveillance. VL cases strongly clustered in tolas (hamlets within villages) in which > 66% of residents self-identified as scheduled caste or scheduled tribe (SC/ST); 79.8% of VL cases occurred in SC/ST tolas whereas only 24.2% of the population resided in them. Other significant risk factors included being an unskilled non-agricultural laborer, migration for work in a brick kiln, living in a kuccha (mud brick) house, household crowding, habitually sleeping outside or on the ground, and open defecation.ConclusionsOur data highlight the importance of sensitive surveillance with triggers for case cluster detection and rapid, careful outbreak investigations to better respond to ongoing and new transmission. The strong association with SC/ST tolas suggests that efforts should focus on enhanced surveillance in these disadvantaged communities.Graphical

Plasmodium falciparum Parasitaemia during Pregnancy and the Use of Malaria Prevention Methods by Women Attending Antenatal Consultation at the Regional Hospital Bamenda, Northwest Cameroon

Aims: The aims of this study were to determine the prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum parasitaemia in pregnant women and to identify the prevention methods used by pregnant women attending antenatal consultation (ANC) in the Regional Hospital Bamenda (RHB).
 Study Design: This was a hospital based cross sectional study.
 Place and Duration of Study: This study was carried out in the Regional Hospital Bamenda between April and May 2020. 
 Methodology: A structured questionnaire was used to collect information on sociodemographic characteristics, history of pregnancy and the use of malaria prevention methods. Capillary blood was collected through finger prick and used to prepare thick and thin blood smears that were Giemsa-stained for the detection of malaria parasite by microscopy.
 Results: A total of 250 pregnant women took part in this study. The mean age ±SD was 27.71 ±5.47 years. The mean pregnancy age ±SD was 24.04 ±8.59 weeks. The prevalence of malaria parasitaemia was 18.0%. The most used malaria prevention method was LLINs (190/211, 91.0%). There was a statistically significant difference in MP prevalence between women who used IPTp (13.9%) and those who didn’t (26.5%) (χ2 =5.87, P= .02); between women who used bed nets and IPT (12.9%) in combination and those who didn’t (24.0%) (χ2 = 5.12, P= .03) as well as between participants who used at least one method (16.4%) and their counterparts who didn’t use any malaria prevention method (38.9%) (χ2=5.73, P=.01). Living in a house with plank or mud walls (13; 29.0%) was surprisingly more protective than living in a cement brick or mud brick house (30; 71.0%) (OR: 2.34; 95%CI: 1.10-4.97; P=.03).
 Conclusion: Malaria remains a health preoccupation among pregnant women attending ANC consultation in the RHB. Use of bed nets and IPTp as well as the use of at least one prevention method could be protective.

A Glimpse through Time and Space: Visualizing Spatial Continuity and History Making at Çatalhöyük, Turkey

Abstract The inhabitants of Çatalhöyük, a 13.5 hectare Neolithic site (ca. 7100–5900 BCE) located in central Anatolia, Turkey, created material links between themselves and their past by repetitively constructing and maintaining mudbrick houses and actively retrieving skeletal remains from buried buildings. We argue that archaeological visualization is a viable tool to aid interpretation of this habituated behavior and commemorative links to the past, also known as “history making.” This study employed widely adopted methods to ensure reliability, scientific rigor, and tracking of knowledge provenance in the implementation of multi-temporal 3D reconstructions of the Shrine 10 sequence, a series of superimposed buildings spanning a significant part of the site's chronology. Our results facilitate analysis of the history-making practices documented in the Shrine 10 sequence by providing unambiguous visual representations of its complex archaeological record and enabling users to visualize the long-term history of this Neolithic built space.

From the Editors

Author(s): Lercari, Nicola; Busacca, Gesualdo | Abstract: The inhabitants of Catalhoyuk, a 13.5-hectare Neolithic site (ca. 7100–5900 BCE) located in central Anatolia, Turkey created material links between themselves and their past by repetitively constructing and maintaining mudbrick houses and actively retrieving skeletal remains from buried buildings. We argue that archaeological visualization is a viable tool to aid interpretation of this habituated behavior and commemorative links to the past, also known as “history making.” This study employed widely adopted methods to ensure reliability, scientific rigor, and tracking of knowledge provenance in the implementation of multi-temporal 3D reconstructions of the Shrine 10 sequence, a series of superimposed buildings spanning a significant part of the site’s chronology. Our results facilitate analysis of the history-making practices documented in the Shrine 10 sequence by providing unambiguous visual representations of its complex archaeological record and enabling users to visualize the long-term history of this Neolithic built space

“1st century BCE occurrence of chicken, house mouse and black rat in Morocco: Socio-economic changes around the reign of Juba II on the site of Rirha”

This paper provides new data on the human-mediated introduction of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus Linnaeus, 1758), black rat (Rattus rattus Linnaeus, 1758) and house mouse (M. musculus domesticus Schwarz & Schwarz, 1943) on the stratified site of Rirha, located in the Gharb plain, Morocco. The Mauretanian Tell, with its mud brick houses, streets, kitchens and dump areas have been excavated extensively and benefitted of sieving which provided clear evidence of the presence of the galliform and of the two murids in 1st century BCE levels and probably earlier around the 3rd 2nd c BCE for house mouse. This renews our understanding of the phylogeography of these three allochthonous species in Morocco. At a larger scale, our results feed the archaeological understanding of the occupation of this diachronic site and the evolution of the dynamics of trade and exchange prior to the Roman period in this area of northern Africa.

UNDERSTANDING SOCIO-CULTURAL SPACES BETWEEN THE HADHAR AND BADU HOUSES IN KUWAIT

This study examines the socio-cultural spaces of the two major groups in Kuwait: the Hadhar and Badu. These groups are not an ethnic classification but are rooted in their historic settlements. The Hadhar refer to people who lived in old Kuwait town and were mostly merchants and artisans who made their living from the sea. The Badu on the other hand, most commonly referred to as Bedouins, are nomadic tribes who lived on the outskirts of old Kuwait town or in the Arabian Desert. This study employs cognitive maps to reveal fascinating insights into the lifestyles and cultural differences of these two groups as it relates to their domestic built environment. This study argues that house spatial organization is tightly coupled with a family’s socio-cultural traditions and values; hence, there are major spatial distinctions between the houses of the Hadhar and Badu. These differences are apparent in the houses’ main spaces such as the living hall, male guest reception space or diwaniya, and main entrance. This paper also contends that these differences are rooted historically in the traditional Hadhar mud brick courtyard houses and the traditional Badu Arabian tents. Although the oil boom and consequent impact of globalization transformed Kuwait’s houses into modern villas, on the inside they are still linked to each group’s traditional use of space.

Assessment of seismic impact on residences during blasting excavation of a large-scale rock slope in China

Reasonable assessment of blast-induced seismic impact on local residences has great significance for reducing social conflicts and ensuring smooth construction. In this paper, a grading and zoning evaluation scheme was introduced to assess the seismic impact caused by surface blasting during excavation of a high rock slope in China. Firstly, based on the one-dimensional seismic wave theory and several worldwide accepted vibration criteria, a specific vibration safety control standard is recommended. Then, a 6-month field investigation was conducted to evaluate the distribution of blasting vibration in the whole influenced residential area, and the attenuation laws of peak particle velocity (PPV) versus scaled distance were also obtained. Combining the presented seismic damage criterion with the monitored PPV distribution, safety distances for preventing cracking of mud-brick houses were derived, and the influenced zone can be divided into three sub-zones: scaled distance D 80 m/kg1/2, which can be defined as the influenced zone, slightly influenced zone and uninfluenced zone, respectively. And this sub-zoning scheme has been verified by the field investigation after blasting. And the result has been used as the main foundation for damage compensation. For this case, this method can also be promoted to other similar projects.

In the footsteps of Alexander the Great: searching for the origins of ancient zooplankton on the wild steppe of Central Asia

Rising above the modern town of Nurata, in Navoiy Province, eastern Uzbekistan is the ancient fortress of Alexander the Great, built as part of Alexander's campaigns to subjugate the Persian-speaking Sogdian peoples that lived in this province of the Persian Empire in the 4th Century bc. Alexander passed this way in 327 bc, marching his ancient army through this beautiful but desolate landscape, and conquering all before him. His fortress was built in a strategic place at the boundary between fertile agricultural lands and a dry and uncompromising vastness of steppe that lies to the east. From Nurata, about one hour drive by car along a road that cuts eastwards across the desert, is the sleepy town of Jo'sh. In the mountains beyond Jo'sh sits the hamlet of Kanda, a few mud-brick houses nestling at the head of a small valley where a spring emerges miraculously from a bone-dry landscape. Hereabouts are telltale signs of ancient marine deposits yielding graptolites from rocks of the Silurian system. And in these rocks are the fossils of tiny arthropods that mark a fundamental shift in the marine arthropod zooplankton 425 million years ago. It is these fossils that we have chased halfway across the world to the steppe of Central Asia.

Thermal comfort characteristics of some selected building materials in the regional setting of Ile-Ife, Nigeria

In Ile-Ife, it is very common to see quite a lot of local people engaging in mud bricks moulding, concrete block making, mud house construction and the bricklaying profession in general. These have particular bearing on the economy and the political situation of the people involved as in the profession there is set of rules and regulations guiding the rate and procedure for carrying out any such moulding or construction work. Considering the importance of this, the present study investigated the thermal performance of some selected building materials in the ancient city of Ile-Ife in Nigeria. The work demonstrated how a building envelope responds to outdoor conditions through graphic illustrations. This was followed by constructing three physical building models, with model 1 constructed of mud bricks, model 2 constructed of concrete blocks and model 3 constructed of cast concrete. Each of the models was first roofed with galvanised Iron roofing sheets, later with aluminium roofing sheets and finally with asbestos roofing. Readings were taken by inserting TGP-4500 Data loggers into appropriate positions. The results showed that internal temperatures in the mud-brick and cast concrete buildings remained fairly stable despite external diurnal fluctuations. Humidity data collected also showed that fluctuations in external humidity levels do not affect humidity levels within the mud-brick and cast concrete structures significantly. On the other hand, the structure made of concrete blocks responded more to external fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Moreover, humidity levels in the cast concrete building were the least, followed by those in the mud-brick house; while the concrete block structure had the highest level of humidity. It was also discovered that aluminium roofing gave the highest internal temperature, followed by galvanised iron roofing and the least was seen with asbestos roofing. For external diurnal fluctuations, building model 3 with cast concrete gave the most satisfactory performance in terms of thermal comfort; however, building model 1 with mud bricks also gave a satisfactory performance close to that of model 3. The study concludes that building model 1 with mud bricks roofed with Asbestos is the best building model in terms of thermal comfort and affordability. The study also concluded that developing model 1 (mud bricks) in the regional setting of Ile-Ife will go a long way to developing people’s sustainably.

Mali’s Nomads: Bulwarks Against Jihad

Mali’s Nomads: Bulwarks Against Jihad

Assessing the economic burden of illness for tuberculosis patients in Benin: determinants and consequences of catastrophic health expenditures and inequities.

To inform policy-making, we measured the risk, causes and consequences of catastrophic expenditures for tuberculosis and investigated potential inequities. Between August 2008 and February 2009, a cross-sectional study was conducted among all (245) smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis patients of six health districts from southern Benin. A standardised survey questionnaire covered the period of time elapsing from onset of tuberculosis symptoms to completion of treatment. Total direct cost exceeding the conventional 10% threshold of annual income was defined as catastrophic and used as principal outcome in a multivariable logistic regression. A sensitivity analysis was performed while varying the thresholds. A pure gradient of direct costs of tuberculosis in relation to income was observed. Incidence (78.1%) and intensity (14.8%) of catastrophic expenditure were high; varying thresholds was insensitive to the intensity. Incurring catastrophic expenditure was independently associated with lower- and middle-income quintiles (adjusted odd ratio (aOR) = 36.2, 95% CI [12.3-106.3] and aOR = 6.4 [2.8-14.6]), adverse pre-diagnosis stage (aOR = 5.4 [2.2-13.3]) and less education (aOR = 4.1[1.9-8.7]). Households incurred important days lost due to TB, indebtedness (37.1%), dissaving (51.0%) and other coping strategies (52.7%). Catastrophic direct costs and substantial indirect and coping costs may persist under the 'free' tuberculosis diagnosis and treatment strategy, as well as inequities in financial hardship.

Embodied Energy and CO<sub>2</sub> Analyses of Mud-brick and Cement-block Houses

In building projects, the extraction of vast quantities of materials is too common. The extraction of materials and the erection of buildings consume embodied energy and emit carbon dioxide (CO2) that impact negatively on the environment. Therefore it is necessary to consider embodied energy and CO2 amongst other factors in selecting building materials for use in building projects. In most developing countries, building environmental performance analysis has yet to gain interest from the construction community. However, with recent increase in sustainability awareness, both developed and developing nations have engaged in efforts to tackle this challenge. Embodied energy and CO2 are among the leading parameters in assessing environmental building performance. In Cameroon, studies about the assessment of embodied energy and CO2 of building projects are scarce. Hence, professionals find it difficult to make alternative choices for building materials to use in their different building projects. This study uses a detailed process analysis approach supported by two popular housing types in Cameroon (mud-brick and cement-block houses) to assess the embodied energy and CO2 impacts from building materials. The emerging Building Information Modelling (BIM) tool was used to validate the computational results of the process analysis method. The findings revealed the embodied energy and CO2 for the mud-brick houses are 137934.91 MJ (2007.8 MJ/m2) and 15665.56 Kg CO2 (228.03 Kg CO2/m2); the cement-block houses are 292326.81 MJ (3065.51 MJ/m2) and 37829.19 Kg CO2 (396.7 Kg CO2/m2) respectively. Thus, the cement-block house expends at least 1.5 times more embodied energy and emits at least 1.7 times more embodied CO2 than mud-brick house. Although these findings cannot be generalized, they nonetheless indicate the importance of considering embodied energy and CO2 in making alternative choices for use in different building projects.

Sedimentary processes involved in mud brick degradation in temperate environments: a micromorphological approach in an ethnoarchaeological context in northern Greece

Sun dried mud bricks are a common building material across the globe, found in many archaeological sites in the Old World since ca. 11,000 years ago. This material is known to disintegrate due to exposure to the elements, mostly affected by rain. Yet, the geomorphic and sedimentological characteristics of this disintegration process have never been studied in detail until recently. Here we report on mud brick degradation processes observed in an abandoned mud brick village in northern Greece. We demonstrate that mud bricks have unique micromorphological characteristics that differentiate them from natural soils. Upon degradation some of these characteristics are lost (e.g., planar voids after fibrous vegetal temper). Rain initiates brick degradation at the upper parts of walls where from brick material is washed down walls and deposited at their feet, forming a conical talus. The talus deposits show micromorphological features indicative of a variety of flows, including wet and dry grain flows, debris, hyperconcentrated and water flows. These flows seem to operate simultaneously across small distances. These talus deposits are different micromorphologically from natural soils thus their characteristics can be used to identify degraded mud brick material in archaeological sites. This, in turn, may help identify the location of long degraded mud brick walls (in the absence of stone foundations) and identify the relationship between house floors and degraded infill that accumulated on floors following wall degradation. A comparison between the current observations with a previous study we conducted in an abandoned mud brick house in arid southern Israel, illustrates the generality of these low energy slope processes in mud brick degradation, which emphasizes the worldwide applicability of the processes identified in this study.